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LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
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AN 


ENUMERATION 


NORTH  AMERICAN  LICHENES, 


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AN    ESSAY 


NATURAL  SYSTEMS  OF  OKEN,  FRIES,  AND  ENDLICHER. 


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AN 


ENUMER  ATION 


NORTH  AMERICAN  LICHENES, 


A  PRELIMINARY  VIEW  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  AND 
GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  THESE  PLANTS, 

AND  OF 

THE  FRIESIAN   SYSTEM: 

TO  WHICH  IS  PREFIXED 

AN    ESSAY 

ON  THE 

NATURAL  SYSTEMS  OF  OKEN,  FRIES,  AND  ENDLICHER. 


By  EDWARD  TUCKERMAN,  LL.  B., 

RESIDENT  ORADUATB  OF  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


"  Ibis  honestus, 
Poatquam  egregiam  tu  quoqne  sortem 
Nactus  abis,  dextri  prece  soUicitatus  amici. 
Milt.  Sylv. 


CAMBRIDGE: 

PUBLISHED  BY  JOHN  OWEN. 

1845. 


LIBRARY 


T  TXTTi  r-r- -r.  I 


PREFACE. 


The  preface,  as  the  last  part  of  an  author*s  work,  gives  hira  an  opportu- 
nity to  review  what  he  has  written,  to  express  his  own  sense  of  its  merits 
and  defects,  and  to  put  it  in  a  true  light.  It  is,  then,  ray  wish  to  introduce 
the  preliminary  sketch  as  valuable  only  for  what  it  presents  of  truth  of  the 
systems  it  treats  of,  and  as  making  no  claim  to  other  consideration.  I 
feel  too  deeply  the  difficulty  and  the  importance  of  accurate  knowledge, 
to  be  willing  to  venture  any  opinions  of  my  own  on  the  topics  of  this  paper 
without  hesitation.  Such  reflections  as  occurred  to  me  in  writing  it  I 
have  however  set  down,  in  the  order  in  which  they  arose,  and  the  man- 
ner which  then  suggested  itself.  The  whole  is  very  imperfect,  but  it 
contains  what  it  purports  to,  and  I  am  unable  to  devote  more  time  to  its 
adornment. 

What  follows  is  a  View,  as  complete,  so  far  as  matter  goes,  as  I  can 
make  it,  of  the  present  received  doctrine  of  structure  and  metamorphosis 
in  Lichenes,  with  such  portions  of  the  general  history  of  these  plants  as 
seemed  appropriate.  There  is  nothing,  to  my  knowledge,  in  English, 
which  fully  presents  the  views  of  the  modern  Swedish  and  German 
lichenists,  nor  are  such  introductions  as  that  of  Fries  to  his  "liicheno- 
graphia  Reformata"  fairly  appreciable  by  any  but  quite  advanced  and 
experienced  cryptogam ists.  The  whole  of  this  part  of  the  treatise  is  but 
a  shadowing  out  of  the  Friesian  method,  with  such  other  matter  as  I 
could  bring  together  from  Meyer,  Wallroth,  Eschweiler,  and  Luyken. 

The  System,  at  the  end,  comprises,  it  will  be  seen,  a  complete  conspee- 
tus  of  all  the  European  genera,  and  also  a  synopsis  of  the  North  American 
species  which  are  satisfactorily  known  to  me.  This  affords  a  tolerable 
view  of  lichenose  (and,  to  some  extent,  byssaceous)  vegetation  in  the 
northern  half  of  North  America,  but  it  is,  I  fear,  much  less  complete  as 
respects  the  southern,  except  in  so  far  as  species  and  genera  are  common 
(which  to  great  extent  they  undoubtedly  are)  to  both  districts.  In  the 
extreme  south,  some  tropical  genera  are  probably  more  or  less  represented, 
and  no  doubt  numerous  species  occur,  which  are  not  found  either  at  the 
north  or  in  Europe.  The  whole  number  of  our  species  here  set  down, 
excluding  Byssaceae,  is  209,  which  is  about  70  more  than  the  largest  and 
only  general  American  catalogue  contains;  the  species  in  this  last  being 
reckoned  according  to  the  principles  which  are  expressed  in  my  own. 
We  have,  then,  as  yet  known,  43  species  less  than  Britain,  61  less  than 
Switzerland,  105  less  than  Sweden,  and  111  less  than  France.  In  fact, 
however,  it  is  quite  probable  that  we  have  many  more  species  than  the 
richest  European  district,  on  the  whole,  if  not  in  all  particular  genera. 

I  will  add  a  single  remark,  which  was  meant  to  have  been  introduced 
as  a  note  to  a  passage  of  Oken,  afterwards  left  out.  His  svstem  of  mate- 
rialism is  so  simple,  so  old,  and  so  entirely  hypothetical,  that  a  naturalist 
may  be  pardoned  the  unwillingness  to  meddle  with  it  at  all.  This  1  will 
do  only  to  notice  what  follows,  especially  as  it  gives  me  the  opportunity 
to  reply  in  some  harmonious  words  of  another,  who  is  less  known  than, 
perhaps,  he  deserves  to  be.    The  pertinent  question, — why,  if  nature  has 


Tl 

brought  forth  of  itself  all  natural  bodies, this  law  of  nature  has, at  least  within 
the  compass  of  scientific  history,  ceased  to  manifest  itself,  all  apparent  ex- 
ceptions being  not  only  disputed,  but  at  the  best  mere  isolated  contradic- 
tions to  the  whole  tenor  of  knowledge,  and  in  large  part,  perhaps,  subjec- 
tive,!—  Oken  can  answer  only  by  saying,  that  the  relations  of  things  have 
been  altered  already  as  much  as  they  can  be :  —  weil  sie  sich  schon  so  viel 
geandert  haben,  als  sie  konnten,  (Naturgesch.  v.  2,  p.  255), —  which  is 
not  only  too  unsatisfactory,  but  altogether  too  stale,  it  being  precisely 
Lucretius's  way  of  attempting  to  escape  the  difficulty,  which  eighteen 
centuries  ought  to  have  improved  upon,  at  least. 

"  Jamque  adeo  aifecta  est  ajtas ;  effaetaque  tellus 
Vix  animalia  parva  creat,  quse  cuncta  creaviu 

Sed  C[uia  JGinem  aliquam  pariendi  debet  habere 
Destitit.  ut  mulier  spatio  defessa  vetusto." 

(Lucr.  lib.  ii.  1150,  v.  825.) 

And  we  may  be  well  content,  for  our  parts,  to  say,  with  the  cardinal  de 
Polignac's  Anti-Lucretius  2 :  — 

"Sed  quis  eos  foetus  ipsa  in  tellure  creavit?  , 

Vas  est,  non  opifex.     Hie  te  tua  fabula  fallit 

Etjugulat. 

Impietas  hue  usque  virum  insanire  coegit! 
Numine  destructo,  Fortunse  tradidit  amens 
Numinis  officium !    Quam  prudens  quamque  benigna 
Haec  Fortuna  fuit!  'Quae  raunificentia  major, 
Aut  quse  cura  magis  materna  in  rebus  aJendis ! 
Qui  talem  agnoscit  casum,  non  indiget  ullo 
Numinis  auxilio:  quia  casum  baud  esse  fatetur, 
Invitusque  Deum  commentis  ponit  in  ipsis.'' 

Cambridge,  1st  May,  1845. 


1  Fries  has  some  observations  upon  this,  which,  as  coming  from  a  botanist 
of  all  others  most  familiar  with  the  obscure  forms  of  vegetation,  wherein  nature 
is  supposed  by  the  theorists  itself  to  generate,  are  worthy  of  attention.  "It 
has  happened,"  he  says,  "with  Botany,  as  with  the  geography  of  the  ancients, 
that  to  unknown  regions,  various  phenomena,  irreconcilable  with  the  laws  of 
nature,  have  been  attributed,  which,  with  advance  of  knowledge,  have  been 
transferred  to  regions  yet  beyond.  So  Cornari's  theory  of  the  transmutation  of 
phanerogamous  plants,  and  their  equivocal  generation,  is  driven  now  to  the  cryp- 
togamous  tribes.  If  there  be  among  the  lowest  of  these  tribes  some  facts  which 
seem  to  prove  original  generation  in  their  case,  it  is,  on  the  other  hand,  most 
certain  that  many  of  the  gravest  enigmas  of  this  sort  have,  with  fuller  knowledge 
of  the  matter,  vanished:  —  and  the  plants  themselves  even  turned  out  to  be  no 
plants,  but  only  mere  residua  or  exanthemata  of  vegetation.  For  myself,  I  will 
here  testify,  that  I  have  found  the  propagation  of  the  lowest  plants,  in  so  far  as 
I  have  understood  it, equally  normal  and  regular  as  that  of  the  higher."  —  Lich- 
enographia,  p.  Iv. 

2  Anti-Lucr.  lib.  vii.  118. 


i:  i' 


A    VIEW 

OF    THE 

NATURAL  SYSTEMS  OF  OKEN,  FRIES,  AND  ENDLICHER. 


"  NatursE  non  imperatur,  nisi  parendo At  qui  formas  novit,  is  naturae 

unitatem  in  dissimiliiinis  coinplectitur."  —  Bacon. 


We  may  view  nature  either  as  a  whole,  or  as  a  whole  subsisting 
in  a  multitude  of  distinct  parts.  With  the  former  is  especially  con- 
cerned the  speculative,  and  with  the  latter  the  empirical  Natural 
Science.  The  speculative  science,  or  the  philosophy  of  nature, 
seeks  to  explain  this  objective  generally,  and  its  relation  to  us,  and 
its  ultimate  end  is  also  the  end  of  all  the  researches  of  naturalists. 
In  these  researches  we  observe  a  constant  tendency  to  arrive  from 
nature  at  intelligence,  to  bring  into  nature  theory.  The  perfect 
completion  and  satisfaction  of  all  this  will  be  found  in  the  subordi- 
nation of  all  nature  under  laws  of  intelligence  ;  in  the  final  knowl- 
edge of  that  absolute  Unity,  which  comprehends  the  omniformity 
of  being. 

There  is  in  all  natural  bodies  a  tendency  to  an  individual  and 
separate  nature  ;  this  individuality  is  manifest  in  animals  and  plants, 
and  is  asserted  also  of  minerals,  from  the  definiteness  in  these  last 
of  the  proportions  of  their  chemical  constituents.  It  is  this  which 
makes  the  empirical  natural  science  possible,  and  in  individuals  and 
their  relations  it  has  its  beginning  and  entire  scope.  We  may  from 
this  run  through  the  history  of  our  studies,  from  general  science 
arriving  at  botanical,  and  thence,  from  past  researches,  at  those  to 
which  this  essay  is  devoted. 

The  savage  becomes  acquainted  with  the  animals  of  his  neigh- 
bourhood, and  the  trees  and  herbs  which  he  has  found  useful*or 
hurtful  to  him.  But  his  knowledge  of  them  is  not  science,  any 
more  than  the  similar  acquaintance  with  nature  of  the  unthink- 
ing man  of  our  own  day.  It  is  in  the  sage,  the  medicine-man  of 
the  savage  tribe,  that  I  find  the  first  gleams  of  the  twilight  before 
the  dawn  of  science.  He  learns  some  affinities,  and  perhaps  ob- 
serves some  metamorphoses ;  and  what  he  has  thus  gained  becomes 
the  ground  of  the  knowledge  of  others  who  come  after  him,  until, 
in  some  generalizing  philosophical  mind,  science  is  born.  It  exists 
now,  in  its  rudiments,  in  one  thinking  mind ;  the  only  necessary 


a 

condition  of  its  existence.  Most  slowly  does  it  extend,  as  disciples 
become  masters,  and  hardly  and  not  at  all  perhaps  does  it  advance, 
as  little  minds  falsely  interpret  and  great  ones  are  rare,  and  hinder- 
ed as  it  is  and  hemmed  in  by  circumstances  of  society,  it  is  long 
peculiar  to  the  nation  wherein  it  arose.  But  Aristotle  must  be  re- 
garded, not  only  as  himself  competent  to  write  the  history  of  nature, 
but  as  representing  others,  who  had  before  him,  in  different  ages, 
comprehended  not  only  the  knowledge  of  their  times,  but  expressed 
and  transmitted  it  in  philosophical  form.  By  Aristotle  and  Theo- 
phrastus,  the  latter  of  whom  is  the  father  of  Botany,  science  was 
established  forages,  and  the  long  era  which  follows  them  ends  only 
with  the  rise  of  modern  philosophy.  This  was  the  era  of  contem- 
plation :  the  old  civilization  of  Greece  becomes  extinct ;  a  military 
power  rises,  domineers,  and  dies  ignobly ;  the  Goths  appear,  and 
while  the  nations  which  they  grew  into  are  developing  and  ad- 
vancing, and  more  slowly  yet  the  feeble  aborigines  of  Europe  and 
the  old  Roman  colonies  are  becoming  states,  or  at  least  civilized  ; 
while,  to  come  down  yet  further,  all  men  seem  to  be  soldiers,  and 
the  highest  refinement  expresses  itself  only  in  chivalry,  —  this  can- 
not be  more  than  a  contemplative  period,  and  it  is  a  doubtful  chance 
if  the  great  minds  think  of  science  at  all.  Dioscorides  is  the  second 
father  of  Botany,  and  Pliny  is  the  expression  of  Roman  science, 
or  rather  of  the  want  of  it  among  the  Romans.  The  Arabians 
reproduce  Grecian  science,  but  with  reference  mostly  to  medicinal 
or  other  art.     And  this  is  all  we  know  of  this  long  age. 

The  modern  science  dates,  then,  from  about  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  whenlightand  liberty  overcame  every 
power  of  darkness,  and  shone  forth,  quickening  and  awakening  all 
knowledge.  Many  struggles  had  there  been  before,  and  were  after  ; 
and  it  was  only  in  New  England  that  the  spirit  of  liberty  of  that  age 
found  in  the  next  its  true  expression,  and  left  its  abiding  influences  in 
free  institutions  and  a  spiritual  worship  :  —  but  with  science  happily 
the  awakening  was  universal  and  the  revival  real  everywhere.  From 
its  great  superiority  in  the  number  of  species  over  all  the  branches 
of  zoology,  except  the  lowest  and  least  known,  as  well  as  from  the 
universal  distribution  of  its  objects,  Botany  began  now  to  receive 
great  attention,  and  the  grounds  of  a  reasonable  system  were 
sedulously  sought.  Csesalpinus,  Ray,  Morrison,  and  Tournefort 
are  only  a  few  of  the  more  distinguished  authors,  who  constructed 
more  or  less  wholly  artificial  systems  of  plants.  What  with  their 
labors,  and  the  general  activity  of  scientific  men  reacting  upon 
every  particular  branch,  researches  were  carried  further  and  deep- 
er in  Botany  than  they  had  ever  been  before.  The  true  principles 
of  the  physiology  of  plants  were  sought  out;  and  numerous  collec- 
tors brought  together  species  from  every  country. 

It  was  now  that  Linnceus  appeared,  whose  keen  eye  penetrated 
all  the  science  of  his  age,  and  the  ages  ;  whose  genius  comprehend- 
ed it ;  whose  philosophy  established  it  anew ;  —  who,  while  he  in- 
dicated the  afl[inities  of  nature,  and  pronounced  their  explication 
the  true  end  of  the  science  of  plants,  yet  constructed  also  an  artifi- 
cial system,  which  so  surpassed  every  other,  that  it  seemed  nigh  to 


3 

overwhelming  that  very  knowledge  of  affinities,  to  which,  as  just 
said,  he  had  consecrated  the  whole  design  of  Botany.  From  this 
latter  artificial  system, —  the  dictionary,  as  the  natural  method  has 
been  called  the  grammar,  of  the  science, —  the  Linnsean  school  of 
botanists  arose.  Nor  could  it  otherwise  have  happened  during  that 
century,  for  the  Natural  Method,  though  the  proposed  scope  of  bota- 
nists, existed  as  yet  only  in  its  rudiments.  This  want  of  all  objec- 
tive form  hindered  its  progress  long  in  Sweden,  England,  and  Ger- 
many. It  was  thus  that  Linnaeus  proposed  the  natural  families  only 
to  a  few  select  disciples,  as  that  which,  without  a  key,  he  regarded 
as  merely  esoterical.  It  was  thus,  again,  that  they  were  lost  sight  of 
by  Linnaean  botanists,  and  their  new  establishment,  from  the  passive 
observation  of  nature  and  physiology,  was  the  work  and  is  the  honor 
of  French  science. 

From  LinnsBus  and  Jussieu  together,  therefore,  the  school  of 
our  day  proceeds,  and  they  are  the  foundations  of  all  our  received 
views.  From  the  former  we  have  the  laws  of  science  and  the  ideas 
of  affinities,  as  well  as  the  ground-forms  of  all  our  constructions; 
from  the  latter,  a  natural  disposition  of  the  genera  of  plants. 
This  disposition  generally,  and  without  reference  to  any  particular 
changes  made  in  it  since  Jussieu,  may  be  said  to  be  an  arrangement, 
which,  starting  from  the  old  distinction  in  the  cotyledons,  and  adopt- 
ing the  ternary  division,  therefrom  resulting,  into  Monocotyledo- 
NE^,  DicoTYLEDONE^,  and  AcoTYLEDONEjE,  procccds  to  bring 
together  plants  under  these  in  Classes,  which  in  the  Monocotyle- 
donese  are  distinguished  by  the  hypogynous,  perigynous,  or  epigy- 
nous  position  of  the  stamens ;  and  in  the  DicotyledonesB,  (which  are 
divided  generally  into  Apetalse,  Monopetalae,  and  Polypetalae,)  by  the 
differences  of  various  organs,  but  in  particular  of  the  capsule  and  the 
seed ;  the  Acotyledonese  together  constituting  a  class  by  them- 
selves ;  —  while  all  these  classes  are  once  more  divided  into  natural 
Ordtrs  or  families,  under  which  the  Genera  are  arranged.  Or  rather, 
and  more  truly,  the  Jussieuan  Method  may  be  said  to  be  an  arrange- 
ment of  the  Genera  of  plants  in  their  natural  Orders,  which  orders 
are  again  brought  together  in  higher  but  less  definite  Classes,  and  the 
classes  finally  subordinated  to  the  great  divisions  from  tlie  cotyledons. 

The  genius  of  Jussieu  was  devoted  wholly  to  the  elucidation  of 
the  natural  Orders  of  families  of  plants ;  and  upon  his  labors  here 
rests  the  value  of  his  Disposition;  —  the  classes  and  other  higher 
sections  being  only  after  arrangements  of  the  orders,  and  under- 
stood to  be  more  or  less  indefinite  and  unsettled. 

Although  the  advance  of  knowledge  expressed  by  the  Method  of 
Jussieu  was  very  great,  its  grander  outlines  were  still  (and  unavoid- 
ably) too  indistinct  to  give  it  in  any  degree  the  advantage  of  a  com- 
plete system.  Botanists  still  remained  disciples  of  the  artificial 
Linnsean  system,  and  according  to  its  principles  all  the  most  impor- 
tant works  were  written.  But  a  new  school  was  silently  growing 
up,  worthy  to  represent,  not  what  was  called  the  Linngean  system, 
but  Linnaeus  himself;  nay,  v/hich  surpassed  Linnaeus  and  all  pre- 
vious science,  as  it  ought  to  have  done  ;  —  the  school  of  Richard  and 
DecandoUe,  of  Link  and  Nees,  and  finally  of  Robert  Brown,  who  in 


himself  represents  all  the  botanical  knowledge  of  our  day.  By 
these  has  been  established  the  present  aim  of  botanists,  to  explain 
by  a  universal  knowledge  of  vegetation  its  universal  affinities  and 
laws,  accepting  the  principles  of  Linnceus  and  the  method  of  Jussieu 
as  the  ground  and  starting-point  of  their  researches.  We  proceed, 
then,  in  the  determination  of  a  plant,  from  a  view  of  the  whole 
structure  and  organs,  to  compare  it  first  with  all  other  plants,  in  the 
great  Divisions  ;  next  with  the  larger  groups,  in  the  Classes ;  then 
with  the  lesser  groups,  in  the  Orders ;  then  with  the  yet  more  defi- 
nite GenerOf  and  finally  with  the  other  species  of  the  genus  to 
which  we  have  thus  reduced  it.  From  its  remotest  affinities  we 
descend  to  its  nearest,  efi*ecting  the  whole  through  the  means  of 
the  characters  of  each  division.  This  is  our  way  of  using  the  sys- 
tematic manuals  of  the  Natural  Method  ;  but  there  are  some  further 
remarks  to  be  made,  respecting  the  Method  itself. 

How  far,  asks  Wahlenberg,  can  we  simply  follow  nature,  and 
where  must  art  come  in  ?  From  species,  those  definite  quantities 
of  nature,  from  which  we  start,  we  at  once  reach  the  perception  of 
certain  affinities  which  are  formerly  expressed  in  the  notion  Genus ; 
and,  indeed,  in  the  systematic  study  of  plants  we  arrive  at  this 
notion  by  the  mere  mechanical  constraint  of  scientific  form,  a  spe- 
cies in  science  being  always  a  species  of  some  kind  or  group.  From 
Genus  we  may  even  proceed  to  Order  or  natural  family,  but  to  look 
beyond  —  above  this,  hie  labor,  hoc  opus. 

The  difficulties  of  the  remoter  affinities  belong  more  properly  to 
the  province  of  others  ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  refer  to  them  here, 
any  further  than  simply  to  state  what  we  know  of  a  law  of  nature 
which  concerns  all  plants,  and  seems  to  indicate  a  harmony  which 
will  never  admit  of  complete  expression  in  a  system.  **  Do  not  all," 
says  Coleridge,  "  press  and  swell  under  one  attraction,  and  live  to- 
gether in  promiscuous  harmony,  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  myriad  others  that  in  the  system  of  thy  understanding  are  dis- 
tant as  the  poles  ? "  That  the  series  of  nature  and  of  plants  is  not 
simple,  neither  as  respects  all  plants,  nor  as  respects  particular 
groups ;  that  the  deviations  observable  from  particular  types  do  not 
form  a  single,  but  more,  series ;  and  therefore  that  there  is  much 
conspiring  to  the  suggestion  of  centres,  central  types,  and  diverg- 
ing or  converging  radii,  is  now  generally  admitted  by  botanists. 
Some  further  illustrations  of  this  will  be  found  in  what  follows,  but 
so  little  is  definitely  known  of  the  series  of  nature,  and  the  attempt 
to  represent  them  systematically  otherwise  than  as  combined  in 
a  single  series  has  so  rarely  been  made,  that  the  most  guarded 
language  is  required  to  express  truly,  as  I  have  attempted  above, 
the  tenor  of  what  I  think  is  admitted. 

But  we  have  before  us  the  system  of  Oken,  the  elements  of 
which  were  proposed  by  that  philosopher  in  1810,  and  upon  these 
the  Systema  Mycologicum  of  Fries  elaborated  in  1821,  though,  if  1 
mistake  not  the  first  application  of  his  principles,  in  detail,  by  the 
author  himself  is  in  hia  work  now  to  be  noticed,  which  appeared 
from  1839  to  1841.1 

1  Allgemeine  Naturgeschichte  ftlr  alle  Stande  von  Professor  Oken.  Stutt- 
gart.   1839  -  1841.  Vol.  I.  II.  III.  1.  2.  3. 


Ah  initiis.  Natural  History  teaches  the  knowledge. of  single,  in- 
dividual things  on  the  planet,  their  development  and  perfection, 
and  all  their  relations.  Water,  Air,  and  Ether,  or  Light  and 
Warmth,  which  do  not  appear  as  separate  and  individual  things, 
belong  to  other  sciences.  But  if  we  observe  the  Earth-element 
we  find  a  remarkable  deviation  from  the  others  just  mentioned. 
Our  planet  consists,  not  of  one  and  the  same  mass,  but  of  a  multi- 
tude of  things  extremely  distinct  from  each  other,  —  so  that  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  earth  in  general,  but  only  particular  ingredients 
thereof,  variously  disposed.  Thence  follows  a  manifoldness  of 
things,  and  thereout  springs  Natural  Science  ;  for  were  there  only 
one  Earth,  as  there  is  only  one  Water,  one  Air,  and  one  Ether, 
Chemistry  only,  Physics,  and  Mathematics  could  be  concerned 
with  it. 

The  earthy  things  which  are  the  objects  of  Natural  Science 
have  then  their  definite  ingredients,  properties,  and  forms,  and  we 
call  them  Individuals;  —  not  animals  only  and  vegetables,  but  in- 
organic bodies  also,  from  the  fixedness  of  their  chemical  constitu- 
ents, since  by  chemical  decomposition  these  last  become  wholly 
diflTerent  from  what  they  were  before. 

The  differences  of  the  Earth-element  must  have  a  cause  outside 
of  them,  since  nothing  changes  itself  of  itself.  But  there  is  noth- 
ing beside  but  Water,  Air,  and  Ether  or  Fire.  These  three,  then, 
have  produced  the  changes  in  the  Earth-element,  and  according  as 
the  combination  is  either,  first,  binary,  when  only  a  single  element, 
as  Water,  Air,  or  Fire,  combines  with  Earth  ;  or,  second,  ternary^ 
when  two  elements.  Water  and  Air,  are  combined  with  Earth  ;  or, 
third,  quaternary^  when  Water,  Air,  and  Fire,  that  is,  all  other  ele- 
ments, are  combined  with  Earth  ;—  the  three  kingdoms,  mineral, 
vegetable,  and  animal  arise. 

The  Plant,  then,  is  formed  by  Earth,  Water,  and  Air;  receiving 
through  the  former  nutritition,  in  the  veins  (intercellular  passa- 
ges) ;  through  the  water  digestion,  in  the  cells ;  through  the  air 
the  process  of  breathing,  in  the  spiral  vessels;  —  the  Earth  pre- 
dominating in  Acotyledonese,  the  Water  in  MonocotyledonesB,  and 
the  Air  in  Dicotyledonese.  (So  far  I  proceed  with  the  general  po- 
sitions of  the  author :  his  further  observations,  in  regard  to  the  in- 
fusorial or  living  nature  of  the  ground-matter  of  organisms;  his  hy- 
pothesis of  life ;  and  his  consideration  of  the  distinctions  to  be 
found  between  plants  and  animals  may  be  turned  to  in  his  work.) 

A  perfect  plant,  then,  is  distinguished  into  Stalk  and  Bloom  ;  or- 
gans, that  is,  of  preservation  and  propagation. 

In  the  Stalk  we  have  Root,  Stem,  and  Leaves. 

In  the  Bloom  we  have  Blossom,  Capsule,  Seed,  and  Fruit. 

All  consist  of  cells,  veins,  and  spiral  vessels. 

In  the  Stalk,  once  more,  we  distinguish  Bark,  Liber,  and  Wood. 

Those  parts  of  an  organism  of  which  all  others  are  composed 
are  Tissues.  Those  which  unsundered  run  through  the  whole  are 
Anatomical  Systems.  Those  which  occupy  a  smaller  and  peculiar 
place  are  Organs.  We  arrange  al),  iu  the  order  of  development, 
as  follows :  — 

1* 


1.  Cells.                 4.  Bark. 

7.  Root. 

10.  Seed. 

13.  Nut. 

2.  Veins.                 5.  Liber. 

8.  Stem. 

11.  Capsule. 

14.  Plum. 

3.  Spiral  Vessels.   6.  Wood. 

9.  Leaves. 

12.  Blossom. 

15.  Berry. 

d 

A.  Tissues.  I.  Cells  ;  organs  of  digestion ;  Water :  —  II.  Feins ; 
organs  of  nutrition ;  Earth  :  —  III.  Spiral  vessels  ;  breathing  organs; 
Air. 

B.  Anatomical  Systems.  IV.  BarA; ;  cell-system :  —  V.  Liber', 
vein-system :  —  VI.  Wood ;  spiral-vessel-system. 

C.  Organs,  a.  Of  the  Stalk.  VII.  i2oo<;  cell  or  bark-organ: 
—  VIIL  Stem;  vein  or  liber-organ  :  —  IX.  Lea/;  spiral-vessel  or 
wood-organ,  b.  Of  the  Bloom.  X.  Seed]  root:  —  Xl.Capside; 
stem:  —  XII.  Blossom;  leaf:  —  XIII.  Fruit;  stalk. 

All  systems  and  organs  are  repetitions  of  the  tissues ;  and  the 
fruit  is  a  melting  together  of  the  same,  as  is  seen  by  the  following. 

Apple. 

The  Seed,  that  is,  becoming  a  Nut ;  the  Capsule,  a  Plum  or  Drupe ; 
the  Blossom,  a  Berry ;  and  the  synthesis  of  all,  an  Apple. 

Generally,  then,  all  these  parts  may  be  taken  as  falling  into  three 
sections. 

A.  The  Tissues.  Cells,  Veins,  and  Spiral  Vessels,  which  we 
call  Pith. 

B.  The  Anatomical  Systems.  Bark,  Liber,  and  Wood,  here  call- 
ed Sheaths. 

C.  The  Organs,  as  Root,  Stem,  Leaves,  Blossom,  and  Fruit, 
Organs. 

A  plant  is,  then,  generally, 

A.  Pith.  (Parenchyma.) 

1.  Cell.  (Cellula.) 

2.  Vein.  (Vena.) 

3.  Spiral-vessel.  (Trachea.) 

B.  Sheaths.  (Vaginae.) 

4.  Bark.  (Cortex.) 

5.  Liber.  (Liber.) 

6.  Wood.  (Ligrrum.) 

C.  Organs.  (Organa.) 

a.  Of  the  Stalk.  (Truncus.) 

7.  Root.  (Radix.) 

8.  Stem.  (Caulis.) 

9.  Leaf.  (Folium.) 

b.  Of  the  Bloom.  (Flos.) 

10.  Seed.  (Semen.) 

11.  Capsule.  (Pistillum.) 

12.  Blossom.  (Corolla.) 

c.  Of  the  Fruit.  (Fructus.) 
la  Nut  (Nux.) 

14.  Plum.  (Drupa.) 

15.  Berry.  (Bacca.) 

16.  Apple.  (Pomum.) 

Plants,  then,  cannot  be  any  thing  else  than  the  gradual  and  inde- 
pendent evolution  of  these  parts.  There  must,  then,  be  just  so  many 
classes  as  parts,  corresponding  in  rank  to  the  rank  of  the  parts, — 
Pomaceee  being  the  synthesis  and  highest  perfection  of  the  vege- 
table world. 


Does  the  plant-kingdom  answer  to  these  divisions  ?  It  is  divided 
into  three  great  provinces,  —  AcoTrLEDONE-E,  Monocotyledo- 

NE^,  and  DiCOTYLEDONEiE. 

A.  AcoTYi-EDONE^.  Thcse  have  neither  separate  Root,  Stem, 
nor  Leaves ;  neither  Bark,  Liber,  nor  Wood  ;  they  consist,  then, 
merely  of  Cells,  Veins,  and  Spiral  Vessels.  They  are  then  essen- 
tially only  Plant-Tissue,  and  are  Pilh-plants. 

B.  MoNOcoTYLEDONE^.  Thcso  have  Blossoms  in  which  the 
calyx  is  hardly  distinct  from  the  corolla  ;  Sheaths  instead  of  in- 
dependent Leaves  ;  and  a  Stalk,  in  which  Bark,  Liber,  and  Wood 
are  not  distinguishable.  They  represent,  then,  the  Anatomical  Sys- 
tems, and  are  Sheath-plants. 

C.  .Dycotyledoneje.  These  first  show  a  perfect  distinction  in- 
to Root,  Stem,  and  Leaves,  and  are  the  representatives  of  the  Or- 
gans, —  Organ-plants, 

The  Dicotyledoneee  fall  again  into  three  great  divisions,  1.  Mo- 
nopetalffi,  2.  Polypetalae,  3.  Apetalee.  The  last  have  been  reckoned 
imperfect,  which  holds  only  if  the  corolla  be  the  highest  development 
and  the  last  end  of  the  plant.  But  it  is  not;  it  being  in  the  fruit 
that  all  parts  of  the  flower  combine,  and  all  the  strength  of  the 
plant  is  concentrated,  whence  may  be  inferred  the  possibility  of 
diminution  or  destruction  of  parts  in  the  corolla,  and  hence  the  pro- 
priety of  regarding  the  ApetalsB,  not  so  much  as  wanting  corolla, 
but  as  having  fruit  They  are  the  Fruit-plants,  Of  the  two  oth- 
er divisions,  the  first,  MonopetalsB,  must  be  taken  for  the  lowest 
division  of  Dicotyledoneae,  and  as  answering  to  the  Stem.  They 
will  be  distinguished,  then,  especially  by  their  development  in 
Root,  Stem,  or  Leaves,  and  will  consist  therefore  of  plants  with 
knobbed  or  sappy  roots,  plants  almost  nothing  but  stem  ;  or  plants 
almost  nothing  but  leaves;  —  as  Thistles,  Heaths,  Mints.  They 
are  the  Stalk-plants.  As  to  the  remaining  division,  Polypetalas,  the 
flowers  are  certainly  most  perfectly  developed  in  them,  and  hence 
they  are  the  Bloom-plants.    We  have,  then, 

A.  Pith-plants.     Acotyledonece. 

B.  Sheath-plants.     Monocotyledone®. 

C.  Organ-plants.     Dicotyledonese. 

a.  Stalk- plants.     Monopetalse. 

b.  Bloom- plants.     Polypetalae. 

c.  Fruit-plants.     Apetaloe. 

These  great  divisions  being  settled,  it  becomes  next  the  question, 
if  the  separate  Classes  depend  also  on  separate  Organs.  And 
first,  A.,  of  the  Pith-plants,  or  Acotyledonese.  These  consist  of 
cells,  veins,  and  spiral  vessels.  The  cells  we  find  in  the  Fungi, 
which  consist  wholly  of  cellular  tissue,  without  higher  develop- 
ment, or  green  hue.  The  spiral  vessels  we  find  in  the  Ferns,  the 
first  plants  into  which  spiral  vessels  enter,  which  vessels  therefore 
characterize  this  clasi.  Having  thus  ascertained  the  two  outside 
classes  of  the  Pith-plants,  we  refer  the  remainder  (Musci,  aquatic 
Algfie,  and  Lichenes)  —  in  which  there  are  no  spiral  vessels,  but 


wherein  the  cellular  tissue  is  regular  and  sometimes  longitudinally 
extended,  and  green  appears  —  to  Vein-plants.    Thus  we  have, 

1.  Cell-plants.     Fungi. 

2.  Vein-plants.    Musci,  Algse  aquaticas,  Lichenes. 

3.  Spiral-vessel-plants.  Filices. 

B.  Monocotyledonese.  These  fall  naturally  into  three  sections, 
of  which  the  Grasses  seem  to  be  merely  Bark  ;  the  Lilies  merely 
Liber ;  and  the  Palms  merely  Wood.     Hence 

L  Bark-plants.     Glumaceae,  Juncese,  &c. 

2.  Liber-plants.     Liliaceae,  Orchidacese,  &c. 

3.  Wood-plants.     Talmi,  Aroidese,  &c. 

C.  Dicotyledonese.  a.  Monopetalse.  These  fall  into  three  sec- 
tions ; —  1.  epigynous,  as  Composite  ;  2.  perigynous,  as  Campanu- 
lacese  ;  3.  hypogynous,  as  Labiatce.  Of  these  the  first  are  lowest, 
reminding  us  in  many  respects  of  the  Grasses;  —  they  are  collec- 
tively distinguished  by  their  large  and  sappy  roots,  and  hence  are  the 
Root-plants.  The  second  section,  or  perigynous  Monopetalse,  as  the 
Heaths,  Cinchonacese,  &c.,  are  remarkable  for  a  dry  and  woody 
stem  and  leaves  ;  the  stem  then  predominates,  and  in  this  the  chem- 
ical strength  seems  remarkably  concentrated ;  —  they  are  the  Stem- 
plants.  And  third  the  hypogynous,  as  Labiatae,  Solaneoe,  &c., 
wherein,  with  a  weak  stem,  large  and  very  numerous  leaves,  in 
which  all  the  chemical  strength  of  the  plant  seems  to  be  concen- 
trated, occur.     They  are  the  Leaf-plants.     We  have,  then, 

J.  Root-plants.     Epigynous  Monopetalse  —  Compositse. 

2.  Stem-plants.     Perigynous  Monopetalee  —  Ericeee. 

3.  Leaf-plants.     Hypogynous  MonopetalaB  —  Labiates. 

b.  Polypetalse  ;  which  excel  in  the  number  of  tlieir  families,  and 
the  manifold  diversity  of  their  flowers.  Authors  have  divided 
them  into  epigynous,  as  Umbelliferae ;  perigynous,  as  Rosaceae ;  and 
hypogynous,  as  Malvacese.  Here,  however,  the  first  two  of  these 
sections  are  referred  to  the  other  Fruit- plants  hereafter  to  be  treat- 
ed of  A  perfect  flower  is  moreover  defined  as  one  in  which  all 
parts  are  developed  independently,  and  hence  distinctly  from  one 
another.  This  is  the  case  with  the  third  section,  or  hypogynous 
Polypetalas,*  which  represent,  therefore,  the  Blossom-plants,  and 
fall  into  three  sections.  And,  first,  we  have  those  plants  which  are 
remarkable  for  large  and  showy  flowers,  becoming  frequently 
double,  wherein  all  parts  of  the  bloom  tend  to  pass  into  petals,  and 
generally  every  thing  tends  to  bloom,  as  Caryophyllacese,  Papave- 
racese,  &.c.  These  are  the  Blossom-plants.  (For  the  characters  by 
which  these  sections  of  hypogynous  Polypetalce  are  distinguished 
from  each  other,  see  our  author.)  The  other  plants  of  this  divis- 
ion agree  in  having  mostly  five  petals  and  five  to  ten  anthers,  but 
difier  greatly  in  the  structure  of  the  capsule.  This  is,  then,  firstly, 
split  into  separate  carpels,  which  carpels  may  be  taken  to  repre- 
sent the  seed-development,  as  in  RanunculacesB,  and  these  are  then 
the  Seed-plants,  forerunners  of  the  Nut-plante.  Or,  secondly,  the 
capsule  consists  of  carpels  fast  grown  toother, —  wherein  we 
have  a  perfect  capsule,  one  stigma  and  many  seeds,  —  whence  these 
are  the  Capsule-plants,  and  forerunners  of  the  Drupe-plants.  Thus, 
then, — 


9 

1.  Seed-plants.     Ranunculacese,  &c. 

2.  Capsule-plants.     Rutacese,  &c. 

3.  Blossom-plants.     Caryophyllacese,  «&c. 

c.  We  have  last  the  epigynous  and  perigynous  Polypetalas,  — 
the  Umbelliferae,  RosacesB,  Leguminosss,  &c.  Both  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  flower  and  of  the  fruit,  these  connect  themselves  with 
the  so  called  Apetalae  (as  Proteacese)  and  the  Diclines  (as  Amenta- 
cesB).  The  lowest  of  these  are  without  doubt  the  Apetalse,  which 
are  distinguished  for  the  remarkable  development  of  a  single 
seed,  which  becomes  a  Nut; —  hence  Nut-plants.  Next  to  these 
come  Leguminosffi,  &c.,  —  the  Drupe-plants.  Thirdly,  the  Rhara- 
nese,  Granatese,  &-c.,  constitute  the  Berry-plants.  And  last,  the 
Umbelliferae,  Rosacese,  &c.  the  Apple-plants. 

Looking,  then,  at  the  whole  Plant-kingdom  as  divided  into  Coun- 
tries and  Districts,  it  will  appear  as  follows  :  — 
1st  Country. 
Pith-plants.     Parenchymarioe.     Acotyledoneas. 
(Spores;  without  flowers,  capsules,  or  true  leaves.) 

1.  CI.  Cell-plants.    CellularisB.     Fungi. 

2.  CI.  Vein-plants.    Venariee.     Musci,  Algse  aquaticsB,  Lichenes. 

3.  CI.  Spiral-vessel-plants.    Tracheariae.    Filices. 

2d  Country. 
Sheath-plants.    Vaginarise.     Monocotyledone    .  > 

(Flowers  ;  Capsules ;  Straight-nerved  leaves.)  •> 

4.  CI.  Bark-plants.    Corticariae.    Graminese. 

5.  CI.  Liber-plants.    Liberarise.    Liliacece.  • 

6.  CI.  Wood-plants.    Ligniarise.    Palmi. 

3d  Country.  '< 

Organ-plants.    Organarise.    Dicotyledonece. 
(Root ;  stem  ;  and  reticulate  leaves ;  seed  ;  capsule  and  anthers.) 
Jst  District.     Stem-plants.    Truncarise.    Monopetalse. 

7.  CI.  Root-plants.     RadicarisB.     Epigynous  Monopetalas. 

8.  CI.  Stem-plants.     Caulinarise.     Perigynous  Monopetalae. 

9.  CI.  Leaf-plants.     Foliariee.     Hypogynous  Monopetalae. 

2d  District.     Flower-plants.     FlorariaB.     Hypogynous  Polypetalo.- 
10.  CI.  Seed-plants.     Seminariae.     RanunculacesB,  &c.  ' 

]  1.  CI.  Capsule-plants.     Pistillarise.     Rutaceae,  &-c. 

12.  CI.  Blossom-plants.     Corollariae.     Caryophyllacese,  &c. 

C  Apetalae ;    Diclines ;   epi- 
3d  District.    Fruit-plants.    Fructuariae  ^  gynous    and   perigynous 

(_  PolypetalaB. 

13.  CI.  Nut-plants.    Nucariae.     Apetalae  and  Diclines. 

14.  CI.  Drupe-plants.  Drupariae.  Irreg.  Peripetalae.   Leguminosse. 

15.  CI.  Berry-plants.    Baccariae.    Monog.  Peripetalae.    Rhamneae. 

16.  CI.  Apple-plants.    Pomariae.     Polyg.  Peripetalae.     Rosaceae. 
If  we  cast  back  a  glance  over  the  foregoing,  says  our  author,  we 

seem  to  see  demonstrated  the  perfect  regularity  of  the  plant  king- 
dom, and  the  definiteness  of  every  thing  therein.  The  whole  is  on- 
ly one  single  plant  in  pieces,  every  piece  whereof  is  independently 
developed  into  a  peculiar  structure  ;  —  like  separate  chapels  in  the 
great  temple  of  nature,  repeating  in  small  the  great  design. 


10 

It  is  further  to  be  remarked  that  there  are  three  kinds  of  Affinity. 
1.  Affinity  of  Neighbourhood  [or  affinity  properly  so  called],  follow- 
ing the  series  of  classes.  2.  Affinity  of  Repetition  [or  Analogy],  fol- 
lowing the  numbers  of  the  classes  in  each  division;  so  that  the  first 
class  of  the  second  division  is  a  repetition  of  [or  analogous  to]  the 
first  class  of  the  first  division,  and  so  on.  They  are  potences  of 
each  other.  Our  author's  first  example  is  striking  on  several  ac- 
counts :  —  Fungi  —  GramineeB  —  Compositae  —  Ranunculacess  — 
Amentacese.  And  3.  Parallel  Affinity  [Analogy],  in  which,  when 
the  classes  are  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  the  orders  and  genera 
fall  likewise  parallel  and  correspond. 

All  these  distinctions,  and  particularly  the  general  one  of  Affini- 
ty and  Analogy  are  most  important ;  and  will  be  several  times  re- 
ferred to  in  this  paper.  Oken  says  they  were  confounded  by  bota- 
nists generally,  till  set  forth  in  his  system.  That  this  via  subjecHva, 
by  which  the  whole  Okenian  Disposition  might  have  been  suggest- 
ed, is  perfectly  safe  in  empirical  science,  or  that  it  is  in  any  way  to 
be  substituted  for  experience,  no  one  will  be  rash  enough  to  affirm. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  were  neglected  (a  case,  indeed,  quite  impossi- 
ble), science  would  sufi'er,  and  to  the  extent  of  the  neglect. 

With  regard  to  the  system,  the  elements  of  which  have  been 
above  delineated,  I  have  little  to  say,  generally,  that  will  not  readily 
occur  to  others  occupied  in  these  studies.  That  a  materialist  should 
assume  the  possibility  of  constructing,  —  should,  after  his  knowledge, 
so  to  say,  construct  the  absolute  system  of  nature,  is  not  at  all  won- 
derful. But  to  those  who  start  from  other  grounds,  the  absolute 
system  of  nature  is  itself  ^ttpranatural.  And  thus  I  found  myself, 
before  reflection,  and  much  more  before  experiment,  at  once 
refusing  to  receive  Oken's  system.  With  this,  which  is  not  whol- 
ly irrelevant,  I  will  state  a  single  fundamental  objection  to  the 
above,  sufficient,  in  my  view,  to  justify  us  in  rejecting  it  as  a  system. 
(The  more  general  grounds  of  Oken's  system  of  the  world,  of  which 
the  kingdom  of  plants  is  but  a  portion,  and  which  are  in  part  briefly 
presented  in  the  above,  are,  so  far  as  essential  to  the  system,  still  more 
certainly  uncertain  and  hypothetical,  than  the  particular  instance  in 
Botany  which  I  am  to  notice.  Of  all  such  views  we  may  briefly 
say,  they  do  not  need  to  be  disproved,  but  to  be  proved. )i 

The  importance,  then,  attributed  by  the  author  to  the  meatus  or 
ductus  intercetlulareSf  is  not  admitted  by  other  botanists,  and  with- 
out further  evidence  than  we  have,  must  be  pronounced  merely 
hypothetical.  An  examination  of  the  application  of  this  hypothesis 
in  detail  is  unnecessary,  for  a  very  glance  at  the  Vein-plants,  so 
called,  in  the  tabular  statements  above,  will,  I  think,  be  enough 
to  satisfy  any  botanist  that  he  is  not  here  on  firm  ground.  And  to 
look  at  the  primary,  the  true  Vein-plants,  which  are  the  middle 
series  of  the  Pith-plants :  —  we  find  here  Mosses,  aquatic  Algse, 

1  Naturalists  have  little  to  do  with  *  popular'  hypothetical  constructions, 
unless,  as  in  the  above,  they  be  expressed  definitely  in  a  system.  It  is  a  pity 
there  are  any  '  popular'  books  of  the  kind  ;  for  the  uncertain  regions  of  science 
seem  hardly  the  sphere  of  members  of  parliament  or  general  readers. 


li 

and  Lichenes  placed  together,  and  placed  here,  because,  1.  There 
can  be  but  three  series  of  the  Pith-plants,  corresponding  to  the 
three  "  tissues  " ;  and,  2.  The  two  outside  series  being  determined 
in  Ferns  and  Fungi,  Mosses  and  AlgsB  must  be  the  middle  oneA 
I  say  nothing  of  the  bringing  together  of  Mosses  and  Algje,  which 
was  another  systematic  consequence,  nor  will  I  say  more  of  the 
matter.  With  these  remarks,  which  might  be  extended  to  any 
length,  but  which  I  think  enough  in  themselves,  and  the  thoughts 
which  they  suggest,  let  us  leave  this  temple,  and  return  to  free  di- 
vine nature,  and  to  the  company  of  observers  and  searchers  there. 
In  refusing  to  receive  the  system  of  Oken,  we  do  not,  we  cannot, 
reject  the  ideas  which  were,  however  imperfectly,  expressed  in  it, 
nor  the  truth  which  it  contains.  The  most  profound  of  all  works  on 
Fungi,  the  "  Systema  Mycologicura  "  of  Fries,  was  constructed  on 
principles  which  its  author  referred  to  Oken's  philosophy.  It  will 
be  interesting,  therefore,  to  turn  to  the  views  presented  in  the  In- 
troduction to  that  work,2  which  appeared,  however,  it  should  be  said, 
as  long  ago  as  1821,  when  only  the  general  principles  of  Oken's 
system  were  before  the  world.  Beginning  with  an  earnest  vindica- 
tion of  the  higher  doctrine  of  Linnasus,  Fries  places  himself  at 
once  among  the  disciples  of  the  Natural  Method,  denying,  in  so  many 
words,  the  alleged  superior  certainty  and  facility  of  the  artificial 
system.  He  states  formally  the  quaquaversa]  affinity  of  plants,  and 
hence  rejects  once  more  the  notion  of  a  single  series  in  nature. 
He  declares  species  "unica  in  natura  fixe  circumscripta  idea,"  and 
hence  all  superior  sections  are  more  or  less  indefinite.  The  method 
which  seeks  empirically  to  dispose  all  plants  in  a  single  series,  must 
be  constantly  adapting  diverse  series  to  a  correspondence,  and  is 
hence  Methodus  adaptata.  In  such,  affinity  is  more  or  less  truly 
indicated,  but  a  hundred  such  systems,  every  one  of  which  should 
excel  in  this  or  that  respect,  and  thus  be  equally  good,  might  be 
constructed.  A  certain  universal  view  such  give,  but  not  the  uni- 
versal view.  The  design  of  a  true  system  must  be  to  express  at 
once  and  make  manifest  all  the  affinities  of  plants.  Oken  has  indi- 
cated such  a  system.  We  seek  in  a  system,  not  how  this  and  that 
species  differ,  but  rather  how  the  exterior  discrepant  form  expresses 
the  different  purposes  of  these  forms.  These  purposes  of  life  or  of 
organism  the  external  organs  express.  Every  essential  organ 
represents,  then,  a  peculiar  class,  to  which  class  orders  and  genera, 
in  which  this  organ  is  above  all  others  developed,  are  to  be  referred. 
The  class  is  again  in  the  same  way  divided  into  orders  ;  and  the 
organ  indicating  the  class  indicates  also  the  most  perfect  order  un- 
der it.     All  this  seems  wonderfully  to  conspire  with  nature ;  nor 


1  Auf  diese  Weise  haben  wir  die  beiden  Granzpfosten  der  Mark-pflanzen 
gefunden.  Da  nach  allgemeiner  Anerkennung,  die  Moose  zwischen  den  Pilzen 
und  Farren  stehen,  so  werden  sie  hier  zu  Aderpjlanzen,  &c.,  III.  I.  p.  17.  An 
die  Moose  schliessen  sich  Flechten  und  Tange.    Ibid. 

*  Systema  Mycologicum,  sistens  Fungorum  Ordines  Genera  et  Species,  quas 
ad  normam  methodi  naturalis  descripsit  Elias  Fries.  Lundae.  1821-1823. 
Vol.  I.,  il.,  and  Supplement. 


12 

does  it  readily  appear  how  nature  could  otherwise  express  affinity. 
For  what  is  alBBnity,  if  it  be  not  the  universal  harmony  of  charac- 
ters ?    If  one  organ  is  changed,  we  know  another  is  always  dis- 
turbed ,  if  one  is  more  perfect,  another  becomes  less  so.    No  change 
in  the  organs  is  unimportant.     Whenever  the  system  is  perfect,  all 
parts  will  explain  each  other,  and  the  place  of  every  object  in  the 
system  will  be  indicated  not  only,  but  demonstrated.     And  on  the 
other  hand  its  place  in  the  system  will  indicate  the  nature  and  char- 
acters of  the  object  much  more  than  its  description.    (It  seems  pos- 
sible to  express  this  by  formulsB,  by  which,  by  the  change  of  a  sin- 
gle letter,  all  the  differences  of  Agaricus  are  indicable,  as  see  ap- 
plied  in  the   Consp.  Syst.    Mycol.)     Every  section    which   pre- 
sents the  organ  the  type  of  the  section  most  perfectly  developed, 
so  that  this  section  shall  excel  or  often  exclude  all  the  rest  of  tho 
sections,  is  called  Centrum.    It  is  evident  that  this  must  be  most  dis- 
tinct from  the  other  sections,  and  moreover  that  its  relations  wiUi 
the  other  essential  organs  must  be  less  altered,  so  that  species  in 
the  centre  will  approach  each  other  more  nearly  in  resemblance. 
We  find,  then,  that  central  genera,  the  types  of  orders,  are  always 
vast  (Agaricus;  Fucus;    Lichen  in   the    sense  of   Wahlenberg ; 
Hypnum,  &c.),  and  are  divided  into  more  genera  with  much  greater 
difficulty  than  the  radiij  which  are  sections  (whether  they  be  genera 
Or  orders)  which  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other.    These  centres  are 
the  foundations  of  the  whole  system.    The  character  of  a  class, 
then,  will  square  best  with  the  centre,  and  less  perfectly  with  the 
radii,  which  recede  toward  other  classes.    The  system  expresses 
everywhere  radii  everywhere  touching.     The  centre  passes  always 
into  two  series,  an  inferior  and  a  superior,  whereof  the  former  more 
evidently  approaches  the  preceding,  and  the  latter  the  following 
class.     (These  latter  principles  are  laid  down  by  the  author  with 
reference  to  his  system  of  the  Fungi ;  they  are,  however,  general, 
if  rightly,  that  is  ideally,  taken.)    The  differences  of  Affinity  and 
Analogy  should  be  stated.    Affines,  then,  are  those  which  follow  in 
the  same  series,  and  seem  mutually  to  pass  into  each  other.    Anal- 
og(B,  those  which  occupy  parallel  places  in  different  series,  and  mu- 
tually correspond  to  each  other.     Labiatse  and  Personatse  are  anal- 
og(B ;  Labiatee  and  AsperifolisB,  affines.   Potentillese  and  Ranunculeae 
are  analog(B.    (Many  other  illustrations  given.)     The  more  natural- 
ists have  given  in  to  a  superficial  observation,  the  more  they  have 
confounded  analogy  with  affinity.     These  diflferences  are  exempli- 
fied in  every  province  of  natural  history. 

These  are  some  of  the  principles  of  the  Systema  Mycologicum, 
as  they  are  displayed  by  the  author.  The  skill  with  which  they  are 
applied,  and  the  completeness  with  which  the  whole  is  set  forth,  are 
acknowledged  by  botanists.  Such  a  trial  of  a  system  is  most  severe, 
and  to  me  it  is  reasonable  to  doubt  if  any  system  will  stand  it.  The 
truth,  indeed,  is  eternal,  but  not  the  words  which  limit  or  express 
it,  —  not  the  principles  necessarily,  nor  their  systematic  construction. 
I  would  regard,  then,  the  above  only  as  suggestive ;  and  so  once 
again  return  to  nature. 

The  next  general  work  of  Fries  was  his  "  Systema  Orbis  Vege* 


18 

tabilium,"  which  was  received,  when  it  appeared,  with  universal 
respect,  though  in  many  and  important  points  it  assumed  and  held 
new  grounds.  As  a  system  it  cannot  be  said  to  have  succeeded 
better  than  others,  but  the  high  character  of  the  views  which  it  em- 
bodied, and  the  ability  with  wiiich  they  were  brought  forward  and 
sustained,  together  with  the  perfect  devotion  to  truth  and  science 
which  shone  through  the  whole,  have  left  abiding  impressions  on 
Botany. 

Fries  may  be  said  to  represent  that  higher  school  of  Linnseans, 
which  started  from  the  great  naturalist's  natural  doctrine,  and  as- 
serting the  parity,  at  least,  of  his  method  with  that  of  Jussieu,so  far 
as  the  former  was  developed,  chose  still  to  refer  back  to  Linnaeus. 
And  what  is  it  that  we  see  and  admire  in  Linnaeus  ?  A  mind,  I  think, 
looking  at  once  at  and  through  objects  to  their  laws:  —  that,  with 
what  is  thus  gained,  looks  further  and  deeper,  while  still  the  har- 
mony which  it  seeks  is  foreshadowed,  and  objects  become  eloquent, 
and  more  and  more  akin  to  their  fellows  and  to  man.  A  mind  to 
which  all  philosophy  and  every  science  is  cognate;  which  seeks  all, 
because  in  the  entirety  alone  it  can  find  satisfaction.  To  such  a  mind 
what  an  office  is  that  of  the  naturalist,  —  what  a  privilege  is  life, — 
what  a  manifestation  of  God  is  nature !  These  are  common  words, 
but  I  know  they  are  often  mere  words,  and  such  they  are  not  here. 
Would  that  I  could  express  what  T  feel  of  the  greatness  and  the 
worthiness  of  the  position  of  Linnaeus;  could  portray  him  aside 
from  species  and  genera,  from  system  and  method,  —  the  true  man, 
the  true  philosopher,  the  true  naturalist;  and,  going  back  to  the 
ground  of  all  this,  I  could  show  it  in  that  universality  and  rejection 
of  all  prejudice,  that  progress  from  laws  within  to  seek  laws  with- 
out, that  continual  faith  in  and  seeking  for  harmony,  in  which  Lin- 
naeus wholly  lived. 

"  The  tuneful  voice  was  heard  from  high, 

Arise,  ye  more  than  dead. 
Then  cold,  and  hot,  and  moist,  and  dry, 
In  order  to  their  stations  leap, 

And  music's  power  obey. 
From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 

This  universal  frame  began: 

From  harmony  to  harmony 
Through  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  man." 

As  it  is  only  the  method  of  Fries,  —  his  whole  way  of  looking  at 
nature,— with  which  we  are  here  concerned,  his  particular  systematic 
constructions  become  less  important.  The  tone  of  his  works  is,  to 
me,  in  perfect  unison  with  that  of  the  works  of  Linnasus.  An  ex- 
hausting observation  is  always  directed  by  a  comprehensive  and 
genuine  philosophy,  and  not  one  of  his  least  important  papers  have 
I  seen,  that  is  not  suggestive  of  wisdom  in  the  study  of  nature.  His 
"Systema  Mycologicum,"  and  his  "Lichenographia  Reformata,"  are 
classics  already  among  the  works  on  these  plants;  and  these,  and 
his  lectures  at  Lund  and  at  Upsal,  have  raised  up  in  Sweden  a  class 
of  younger  botanists,  worthy  of  the  country  and  the  university  of 
Linnajus. 

As  the  best  further  illustration  of  the  method  of  Fries,  I  have 
2 


14 

collected  the  following  passages  from  his  various  works,  not  to  con- 
vey any  general  notion,  however,  nor  in  any  sense  a  complete  view, 
but  only  as  in  themselves  valuable  or  suggestive.  They  may  take 
the  form  of  aphorisms. 

I.  Perfectissimse  IdesB,  licet  sensim  et  successive  explicatsB,  primi- 
geniee  sunt:  —  formae  imperfectiores,  laterali  evolutione,  sequilibrio 
successu  temporis  magis  magisque  turbato,  aberrantes,  ssepius  etiam 
ratione  existentiaB  secundarise  sunt.  Quod  in  ingenii  humani  poesi 
maxime  sublime,  id  naturse  ipsius,  rite  exceptse  adhuc  sublimiorls, 
de  cujus  veritate  nunquam  dubitandum,  proximo  accedere  videtur. 

II.  Naturse  in  procreando  libera  quocumque  progreditur,  nee  in 
unum  latus.  Ramorum  instar  e  trunco,  aut  velut  continue  scissi 
radii  a  centre,  naturae  corpora,  quo  perfectius  evoluta  eo  magis  dis- 
creta,8ed  diversarum  serierum  evolutionis  gradus  simul  etcoetanee 
exstiterunt 

III.  Singulffi  speciei  priva  est  idea,  primitiva  differentia,  quae 
mutatis  externis  momentis  personari,  non  tolli  potest  In  affinibus 
naturae  corporibus,  sub  iisdem  aut  diversis  momentis  ortis  hsec  dif- 
ferentia in  constante,  communi  aut  recedente,  omnium  partium  typo, 
adumbratur. 

IV.  Forma  optime  explicata  et  perfectissima  mihi  semper  etiam 
typica  et  primaria,  eaque  regie  in  qua  planta  optime  explicatur,  est 
ejus  static  maxime  naturalis. 

V.  Character  characterem  non  antecellit  nisi  constantia.     (Link.) 

VI.  Character  non  est,  ut  genus  fiat, sed  ut  genus  noscatur.  (Linn  ) 
VIL  Quo  plenius  et  acutius  characteres  proponimus,  eo  magis 

non  raro  a  natura  aberramus.  Characteres  absolutas  mens  humana 
indicare  non  valet.  Inde  ortog  querelse  de  specierum  transitu.  Licet 
harum  constantiam,ut  distinctarum  natursB  Idearura,  non  magis  quam 
existentiam  Dei  mens  humana  demonstrar^  valeat,  utramque  tamen 
ut  assumaraus  et  credamus  necesse  est. 

VIII.  Omnes  querelse  de  characterum  inconstantia  abessent,  si 
prime  ipsos  recte,  dein  scientiam  vere  scientifico  mode,  —  i.  e.ideali, 
amplecteremur. 

IX.  Natura  contigua  est,  quamquam  circa  certos  typos  formae 
magis  coUiguntur,  unde  sectiones  oriuntur.  Sectiones  inde  pluri- 
mas  nee  absolute  nuturales,  nee  mere  artificiales  censemus. 

X.  Nee  transitibus  indirectis,  nee  characteribus  speciei  notitia 
nititur.  Cardo  est  ut  1.)  attendatur  ad  formas  typicas  rite  evolutas ; 
quot  hae,  tot  species ;  ex  his  nee  e  formis  transitoriis  pendet  speciei 
distinctio:  —  2.)  ut  speciei  limites,  non  ad  singulas  formas,  sed  ad 
integram  directe  transeuntium  formarum  seriem,  ponantur  ;  ne,  v.  c. 
ex  infimis  formis  suppressis  (v.  c.  Epilobium  alpinum,  ut  vulgo  recep- 
tum)  novam  speciem  fingas:  —  3.)  ut  caute  separentur  analogae  di- 
versarum specierum  formae : — et  4.)  in  specierum  comparatione  inter 
se  tantum  comparentur  formae  in  anSilogo  evolutionis  gradu. 

It  has  already  been  seen,  that  the  present  position  of  Botanical 
Science  is  one  purely  of  observation  and  analysis.  In  the  former, 
in  its  highest  degree,  is  demanded  all  acuteness,  sagacity,  and  ex- 


15 

perience  possible;  and  in  the  latter,  all  previous  knowledge  of  its 
ohject,  perfect  patience,  and  tact.  There  will  arise  continually 
expressions  of  advancing  science  in  systematical  form,  which  are 
required,  moreover,  as  manuals.  Looking  back  now  upon  what  we 
have  gone  through,  we  may  say  that  we  have  rejected  Oken's  sys- 
tem, and  therein  the  absolute  system  of  nature  of  the  materialists,  as 
presented  in  Oken  ;  that,leavingthis,  we  have  recognized  its  greater 
doctrines,  as  they  are  represented  in  the  earlier  work  of  Fries,  and 
accepted  them  generally,  without  reference  to  system,  or  any  hy- 
pothesis of  the  origin  of  things ;  that  thence  we  have  proceeded  to 
attempt  a  view  of  the  position  of  Fries  as  a  botanist,  and  of  his  way 
of  looking  at  nature,  and  expressed  this  last,  so  far  as  we  were  able, 
in  the  form  of  sentences  collected  from  his  works.  We  have  ac- 
quired thus  far,  then,  only  principles,  and  with  these  we  come  to  the 
examination  of  the  two  other  systems  to  which  this  paper  is  de- 
voted,—  the  system  of  Fries,  and  that  of  Endlicher. 

Fries  has  presented  his  disposition  of  plants,  so  far  as  he  could 
do  it  in  a  local  flora,  in  his  Flora  of  Schonen  in  Sweden  (Flora 
Scanicay  1835.  From  the  Introduction  to  this  the  following  out- 
lines are  drawn.  The  author  begins  with  some  general  remarks  on 
the  distinction  of  system  and  object,  the  impossibility  of  a  merely 
empirical  system,  the  essential  oneness  of  nature  rejecting  all  sys- 
tematic sections,  and  hence  the  necessity  that  even  the  natural 
system  should  be  at  the  same  lime  artificial,  quoad  formam.  The 
affinities  of  plants  are  as  the  myriads  of  stars;  their  families  as  the 
constellations.  The  attempt  to  construct  the  system  of  nature  from 
the  study  of  nature  alone,  is  like  building  a  tower  of  Babel,  with  the 
hope  of  reaching  the  heavens,  —  nor  are  the  heaps  wanting  now, 
nor  the  confusion  of  tongues. 

But  this  opinionisn  ot  to  be  misunderstood.  In  observation  are 
the  foundations  of  all  systematic  construction,  but  this  last  is  not 
to  be  despised,  nor  confounded  with  the  former.  Linnaeus  called 
the  natural  families,  without  a  key,  a  bell  without  a  clapper.  With- 
out such  a  key,  there  is  no  end  to  the  sundering  of  families.  We 
have  laid  aside  the  artificial  Linnaean  system,  but  the  natural  sys- 
tem also  must  be  disposed  artificially.  Finally,  it  is  an  error  to 
consider  any  system  vain  because  it  is  not  perfect :— better  it  were, 
indeed,  that  it  should  contain  principles  of  further  evolution,  but  it 
is  well  if  it  expound  only  one  new  and  true  idea.  The  natural  sys- 
tem respects  the  whole  plant,  of  course.  In  the  embryo  the  whole 
is  contained,  and  hence  very  eminent  botanists  have  taken  this  as 
their  ground-principle,  and  a  priori  we  cannot  deny  great  force  to 
it.  But  it  is  the  way  with  theories  that  opposite  opinions  are  de- 
fended with  equal  success  and  feebleness.  So  it  is  objected  to  this 
principle  that  the  embryo  is  not  a  single  part,  but  contains  in  it  all 
the  parts,  and  that  we  need  not  seek  in  its  original  obscurity  what 
is  afterwards  developed  and  made  manifest  in  the  plant  itself.  And 
moreover,  the  differences  of  the  embryo  are  often  obscure  and  fal- 
lacious, and  hence  the  controversies  concerning  them,  and  the  at- 

}  Corpus  Florarum  Provincialiura  Sueciae.  I.Floram  Scanicam  scripsit  Elias 
Fries.  Prof.  Ups.    Upsaliae,  1835. 


16 

tempts  to  adapt  them  to  theories,  with  which  descriptive  botany  has 
not  to  do. 

The  principle  should  be,  then,  that  the  essential  differences  of  the 
organs  and  their  connections,  explained  from  the  successive  evolu- 
tion of  the  whole  phmt  and  their  mutual  resilience,  be  combined 
into  one.  So,  with  every  new  degree  of  metamorphosis,  new  mem- 
bers of  the  system  will  nppear.  The  grades  of  metamorphosis  are 
essential  in  proportion  as  they  are  primary  (as  respects  existence), 
since  thus  they  have  effect  upon  the  whole  fabric  of  the  plant.  This 
being  understood,  the  gradation  of  the  characters  seems  easy  and 
to  flow  from  the  principle.  First  in  ranii  are  those  of  germina- 
tion ;  second,  of  vegetation  ;  third,  of  the  flower  ;  fourth,  and  last, 
of  the  fruit,  which  is  the  last  metamorphosis.  In  the  former  of  these 
degrees,  there  are  but  few  typical  differences ;  in  the  latter,  many  ; 
hence,  those  are  more  suitable  to  distinguish  higher  sections,  these 
to  characterize  lower  divisions.  I  do  not  see  what  other  natural 
gradation  of  characters  there  can  be  than  this,  following  the  evolu- 
tion of  nature  itself. 

The  principle  of  Germination  is  the  seed.  In  the  nature  of  this, 
a  two-fold  difference,  of  all  the  most  universal,  is  observed,  —  that 
of  Semina  and  Sporse.  There  is  no  other  difference  certainly 
which  has  such  a  resilience  upon  every  succeeding  degree  of  evo- 
lution. Seeds  contain  within  their  integuments  cotyledons,  whence 
plants  germinating  from  seeds  are  called  Cotyledone^.  From 
naked  Spores  germinating  into  elongated  threads  are  produced 
Neme^e.  These  two  sections  may  be  called  the  hemispheres  of  the 
vegetable  world.  (The  Cotyledonese  never  produce  a  simple  thread 
in  germination ;  and  the  Nemeas  never  form  cotyledons  ;  but  we 
find  sometimes  the  cotyledons  obliterated  in  the  former,  and  the 
threads  in  the  latter,  in  which  case  both  seem  deficient,  and  we  thus 
have  Acotyledonese  and  AnemecB.) 

In  Vegetation,  beside  the  differences  of  germination,  emerge 
new,  which  recur  likewise  in  the  succeeding  degrees.  These  fur- 
nish another  means  of  division.  The  Cotyledonese  in  germination 
produce  either  one  or  two  cotyledons,  which  differences  are  most 
manifest  in  the  plant,  which  has  hence  either  an  endogenous  or  an 
exogenous  stem  ;  either  simply  nerved,  or  venose-reticulate  leaves; 
and  hence  again  they  are  divided  into  Endogenese,  or  Monocotyle- 
donece,  and  Exogenese,  or  Dicotyledon ecB.  In  the  Nemece,  germina- 
tion and  vegetation  are  not  separated ;  they  produce  their  fruit, 
either  after  a  new  metamorphosis  is  completed,  or  immediately  by 
simple  metamorphosis,  and  hence  are  Heleroneme(B  (Filices,  Musci), 
or  HomonemecR  (Algse,  Fungi.)  These  four,  Monocotyledonese, 
Dicotyledonese,  Heteronemese,  and  Homonemese,  are  the  four  proV' 
inces  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

In  the  Flower^  we  have  the  third  degree  of  metamorphosis.  In 
this,  while  many  essential  differences  appear,  there  is  none  which 
surpasses  the  preceding,  derived  from  germination  and  vegetation. 
But  that  these  differences  from  the  flower  are  superior  in  rank  to 
those  taken  from  the  fruit,  not  only  does  theory  clearly  indicate,  but 
experience  demonstrates  it.  (What  affinity  is  there  among  Rosa- 
ceflB  of  authors,  with  what  diversity  of  fruit.     What  difference  be- 


17 

twoen  Alismacece,  SpiresB,  Ranunculacese,  which  yet  are  analogous 
as  to  their  fruit.)  From  the  Flower,  then,  we  take  the  third  means 
of  division,  and  thereby  form  Classes.  In  the  Nemese  the  present 
grade  of  metamorphosis  is  wanting,  and  its  place  is  supplied  by 
the  relation  of  the  whole  fructification  to  the  vegetative  system. 
There  are  hence  few  classes  in  the  Nemese,  and  many  in  the  Dico- 
tyledonese,  though  the  former  are  superior  in  the  mjmber  of  species. 
The  classes,  for  the  present,  at  least,  received  by  me,  are  derived 
from  the  epigynous,  amphigynous,  (which  I  do  not  regard  synony- 
mous with  perigynous),  or  hypogynous  site  of  the  corolla.  The  lat- 
ter I  consider  the  lowest,  and  the  first  in  every  point  of  view  the 
highest,  and  no  less  I  reckon  the  monopetalous  corolla  a  higher  de- 
gree of  evolution  than  the  polypetalous,  and  that  the  latter,  and  not 
the  former,  ascends  naturally  from  the  Apetalse.  I  reduce,  finally, 
all  irregular  corollas  to  their  regular  type. 

Last,  we  have  the  Fruit,  wherein  the  differences  especially  vary, 
so  that  all  the  primary  kinds  of  fruit  occur  conjoined  with  a  single 
type  of  flower.  In  this,  then,  we  find  the  fourth  means  of  subdivis- 
ion, into  Orders. 

These,  then,  adds  the  author,  are  the  lineaments  of  the  system. 
Whether  you  call  it  artificial  or  natural  is  to  me  indifferent.  The 
matter  of  it  is  certainFy  natural,  and  the  form  as  certainly  artificial. 
But  this  is  to  me  of  the  very  genius  of  a  true  system.  By  this  key,  1 
have  not  yet  found  that  any  plants,  manifestly  and  by  consent  of  all 
allied,  are  sundered  ;  and  in  doubtful  matters  this  has  been  to  me 
itself  a  cynosure." 

The  only  further  view  of  the  system  of  Fries  that  I  can  give,  is 
the  key  prefixed  by  him  to  his  above-cited  Flora  Scanica,  which, 
however,  may  be  taken  as  perfectly  representative  of  the  whole. 
As  it  is  arranged  to  display  affinity  and  analogy  throughout,  (the 
definition  of  which  terms,  as  here  understood,  has  already  been 
given,)  it  acquires  the  more  interest,  and  makes  necessary  a  few  re- 
marks on  series,  which  I  take  principally  from  the  Lichenographia. 
Series  are  either  progressive  or  regressive.  In  the  progressive  series 
the  vegetative  system  is  especially  luxuriant,  and  it  has  affinity 
therefore  both  with  inferior  and  superior  provinces.  In  the  regres- 
sive series,  there  is  a  tendency  to  fructification  and  the  development 
of  this  system,  and  hence,  the  characters  of  the  province  being 
more  sharply  limited,  and,  as  it  were,  forced  to  an  extreme,  there  is 
no  true  affinity,  either  with  superior  or  inferior  sections,  but  the  whole 
stiffens,  so  to  speak,  into  forms  especially  allied  to  one  another. 
Examples  of  regressive  series  are  Musci ;  Lichenes  among  Algae  ; 
and  yet  more  Fungi;  and  again,  GraminesB  among  Monocotyledo- 
neous  plants.  Of  progressive  series,  we  have  examples  in  Filices,  ap- 
proaching Monocotyledoneas,  and  Monocotyledoneous  Hydrophyta 
approaching  Dicotyledoneae.  We  can  discern  these  series  in  every 
province.  The  regressive  series,  however  imperfect,  is  later  in  the 
series  of  evolution  than  the  progressive :  the  most  simple  organ- 
isms, therefore,  are  not  first  in  the  order  of  production,  nor  does 
nature  simply  proceed,  but  also  recede.  The  differences,  finally, 
of  superior  sections,  are  signified,  though  less  discretely^  in  inferior. 
2* 


CLAVIS. 

Plants    are    Cottledone^  (or  Phanerogamse),   or  Neme^   (or 
CryptogamsE). 

CotyledonejB  are  either  Dicotyledone^  or  Monocottledone^. 

I.  DICOTYLEDONEiE 

f  perianthio  genuine,  CoxMplet^,  toro  pro  petalis  incrassato,  sta- 
minifero : 

Stamina  inserta : 

A.     Coroll(B,  Series  I.  Corolliflorje. 

a.  epigynce  :  b.  amphigyncs  :  c.  hypogynce  : 

Class.  I.  SEMiNiFLORiE.  Class.  II.  AnnuliflorjE.  Class,  hi.  Tubiflor^:. 
Ord.  Synantherae  (anth.  5).  Campanulaceae  (anth.  5).    Solanaceae  (anth.  5). 
Dipsaceae  (an«/t.  4).    (Gesnerieae),  (anf/i.  4).        Personatse  (a«i/i.  4). 
Valerianeae.  Polemon.  Convolvulacese.  Gentianeae. 

Rubiaceae.  Boragineae  {anth.  5).  Asclepiadeae. 

(et5  andr.  et4  andr.)  Labiatae  (anth.  4).  Primulaceae. 

Caprifoliaceae.  (Hydroleacese.)  recec^en^e* ;  Plumbagineae, 

PlantaginesB. 

B.  ReceptaculOf  Series  II.  Thalamiflor^. 

a.  epigipia  I.  in  disco :  b.  amphigyna:        c.  hzjpogijna  (nee  disco  ins. ) : 

ClaSS.lv.     DlSClFLOR^.    Class.  V.     BASIFLORiE.     Ci.Vl.     COLUMNIFLOR^. 

Ord.     Corneae.  Berberideae.  Cistineae. 

Celastrineae    (disco  Cruciferse  (CaZ.  4-j9/ij///.).   Tiliaceae  (fi?/j//.  1). 

adn). 
Malphigiaceae  (dw- Papaveraceae     (CaL.     2-   Hypericinese  (Sfz//.  pZ.). 

CO  lib.)  phylL). 

AraliaceaB  (Z>accafce).Nymphaeaceae(oi'ar.  fwrZ.).  Gruinales  (ovar.  concr.). 
Umbelliferae     {/r.  RanunculaceEe  (ouar. /iZ>.).  Malvaceae  (ovar.  discr.). 

sicci). 
Lorantneae.  Balsamineae.  Caryophyllege. 

Alsinacece. 

C.     Calycif  Series  III.    CALTCiFLORiE,  adnata  toro 

a,  epi-perigyno  :  b.  amphigyno :  c.  hypogyno  : 

Class.  VII.  Fauciflor^e.  Class.VIII.  Toriflor^.  Class.  IX.  Centriflor^. 
Ord.   Calycanthema;  Leguminosae  {Le.gum).       Ericinae. 

[Capsul). 
Rhamneae  (DrupcB).  Drupaceae  {Drupa).  Empetreae  {Drup.). 

Ribesioe  {Pepo).         Pomaceae  {Potnum).  (Aquifoliae.) 

Succulentae.  Senticosae.  Euphorbiacese. 

Portulacacese.  Paronychiese.  Polygoneae  (vaginat.). 

Chenopodiae  {evaginat.). 

f  t  ApetalflB  IV.    Incompletes,  toro  baud  incrassato  1.  staminifero : 
Perianthio 

B,.  gamosepalo-concenlrato :  b.  squamaceo-imbricato :       c.  nulla  I.  ambiguo : 
Class.X.  Bracteiflor^.        XI.  Juliflor^e.  XII.   Nudiflor^e. 

Vepreculae.  Fraxineae.  (ChloranthejB.) 

Aristolochieae  (/icrmajo/i.).  (Juglandineae.)  (Piperacese.) 

Cucurbitaceae  \diclin.).      Amentaceae.  (Saurureae.) 

iArtocarpeae.)  Salicineae.  Callitrichineae 

Jrticeae.  Myriceae  [distigm.).  Nayadese.  ? 

(Balanophoreae.)  Coniferae  \monostigm.).  Ceratophyllese.  S 

1  LycopodiacecB.  Equisetum  (asiigm.).  Chara  (cryptogama). 


19 

II.    MONOCOTYLEDONEiE 


t  complelo  biseriali. 
a.   Stamina  epigijna: 
CI.  XIII.  Fructiflor^;. 
Ord.  Orchidese. 

Jrideae  (ti-iandr.). 
JVarcissege  (hexandr,). 
Hydrocharideae. 
(Vallisneria.) 


Perianthio 

b.   Stam.  amphygna  : 

XIV.      LlLllFLOR^. 

Liliacese. 

Melanthaceae. 

Heloniece. 

Alismacege. 

Juncacese. 

Typha  vid.    Callae. 


Series  fructu  prsepollens, ISeries   flore   praepollens, 
epigyna,  regressiva.       I     centralis,  ainphigyna. 


tt  incompleto  1.  nullo. 
c.  Stamina  hypogyna: 

XV.      SPADlCIFLORiE. 

Callacere. 
Orontiaceae. 
Sparganium. 
Potamogetonese. 
Cyperaceoe. 
ttt  bracteaceo,  valvato: 

XVJ.      GLUMIFLORiE. 

Grarainese. 
ISeries  vegetatione  praepol- 
I     lens,  progressiva;  hypo- 
gyna. 


NEME^  s.  CRYPTOGAMiE. 

Vegetation  taken  as  the  principle  of  disposition,  fructification 
being  more  obscure.  Hence, ;7/Mre5  rationes  inversa.  The  inferior 
sections  surpass  the  superior  in  fructification:  as  MarsileacesB  the 
OphioglossesB ;  Ophioglossese  the  PolypodiesB  ;  Hepaticas  the  Brya- 
cesB ;  Bryaceas  the  LycopodiesB.  So,  too,  Musci,  in  this  respect, 
surpass  Filices;  and  Fungi,  Algse.  In  the  lowest  of  Lichenes  and 
Ascomycetes,  the  Asci  and  Sporidia  are  most  perfect.  While  among 
Phanerogams  the  families  with  covered  fruit  come  first,  so  in  the 
Cryptogamse  those  with  fruit  especially  naked. 

A.     Heteroj?emeje. 
Fila  gerrainantia  in  frondem  caulemque  heterogeneum  abeunt, 
hinc  fructus  secunda  metamorph.     Folia  a  trunco  radiceque  unitis 
discreta.     Imperfecte  vasculares,  evidentius  series  vegetativa. 

Fila  germinantia 

a.  solUariaj  simplicia  in  frondem   b.  plura  ramificantia  in  caulem 
dilatantur.  thallumve  coalescunt. 


CI.  XVII.     Filices. 

(Monocotyledonese  cryptogamse 
s.  MononemefB,  subendogenese. 
Vegetatione,  foliis,  Muscis  per- 
feclior ;  fructificatio  inferior.) 

{CycadecB.) 

1.  Caps.  gyratfiB  in  frondis  superf. 

aggregatffi :  PolypodiacecE. 

2.  Caps.semibivalvesinspicisdis- 

cretis  pedunc.    OphioglossetB. 

3.  Caps,  in  receptac.  ad  basin  foli- 

orum,  MarsileacetB,  AmphibisB. 
*  Blastospora:  Isoetes.    Aquatica. 


XVIII.    Musci. 

(Dicotyledoneoe  cryptogamse  s. 
DtnemecE,  subexogenese.  Serie 
contigua  repetunt  Nudifloras: 
Bryaceae  Mniopsin,  Hepnticge 
Lacin,  Riccia  Lemnam.) 

{Equisetum^  CAora =Dicotyled.) 
I.  Caps   in  alis  foliorum  sessiles 
nudae.     Lycopodiacece, 

2.  Caps,  seta  pedunc :  calyptra  et 

operc.  claussB.    Bryacete. 

3.  Caps.  valvatsB,  exoperculatse. 

HepaticfB.     Amphibice. 
*  Blastospora:  Riccia,  Aquatica. 


aa 


B.      HOMOJVEMEJE. 

Fila  germinantia  cum  systemate  vegetative  homogeneo  (absque 
ullis  partibus  discretis)  siinilaria.  Fructus  prima  metamorphosis. 
Mere  cellulares. 

Gonidia 
a.  pr(Bsentia,    Color  vegetabilis.        b.  nulla.    Color  metallicus. 

CI.  XIX.    Alg^.  CI.  XX.     Fungi. 

'His  radix,  caulis,  folia  in  unum.'  'Neque  folia  neque  ulles  eis  anal- 
Linn.  Vegetativas.  ogse  partes  virides.'  Ray.  Fruc- 
tificativsB. 
1.  Exogene8e,stratisthallidiscre-   1.  Exothalamii,    sporidiis    sece- 


tis:  lAchenes.     Aereas. 

2.  Heterogenese,    stratis    thalli 

confusis.     AmphibisB. 

a.  autonomas,  exscarpce:  Bys- 
sacC(E. 

b.  elementares,     anocarpoB : 
ByssacecB  spuricB, 

3.  Endogenese,  angiocarpffi:  Fu- 

cacea.     Marinse. 

4.  Homogenese,  subfilamentosse, 
gonidiis  ipsis  multiplicatjB  s. 
Blastosporse :  UlvacecR.  Aqua- 
ticas. 

Appendix:  Fructificatione  nulla, 

thalli  in  granula  1.  frustula  di- 

visione,   multiplicata?:    Dialo- 

macece.  (Phytozoa,  crystailina.) 

(Series  vegetativa,  progressiva.) 


dentibus.     Hymenomycetes. 

2.  Heterothalamii,  primo  nuclei- 

feri. 
a    nucleo  in  discum  expanse 

sporidiis    elastice   rejectis. 

Discomycetes. 
b.  nucleo  incluso, cum  sporidiis 

diffluente:  Pyrcnomycetes, 

3.  Endospori,  angiocarpi:  Gaste- 

romyceies. 

4.  Homospori,  sporidiis  gonidiis 
similibus  e  fills  discretis  enati  s. 
Blastospori :  Hyphomycetes. 

Appendix:    Vegetatione  propria 
nulla,  e  gonidiis  1.  clorophyllo 

matris     enati  :      Coniomycttes. 

(Entophytse.     Exanthemata.) 
(Series  fructu  praepollens,  regres- 


As  an  artificial-natural  system,  which  makes  no  pretence  of  pre- 
senting the  system  of  nature  absolutely,  but  offers  itself  to  be  proved 
and  disproved  by  experiment,  the  above  is  proposed  to  botanists. 
That  they  should  find  the  last  systematic  conclusions  of  such  a 
mind  as  Fries  useful  and  valuable,  were  to  be  expected,  if  any  bot- 
anist's conclusions  are  of  value  to  others.  And  if  any  there  be, 
disposed  to  reject  or  neglect  whatever  does  not  come  of  their  own 
system  they  are  certainly  losers,  for  they  shut  themselves  out  from 
truth.  This  does  not  belong  to  one,  and  opposite  systems  stand 
upon  it;  and  we  cannot  arrive  at  all  truth  but  through  all  systems, 
in  science.  And  there  are,  moreover,  two  ways,  in  one  or  the  other 
of  which,  or  in  both,  it  may  be,  united,  naturalists  proceed.  For 
they  start  either  simply  from  nature  without  philosophical  grounds 
or  ends,  and  accumulate  only  and  then  accommodate  facts,  —  the 
observers;  or  again,  knowing  that  man  and  reason  are  first, and  that 
we  cannot  proceed  but  from  them  and  with  them,  they  begin  scien- 
tifically with  what  they  must  begin  with  at  any  rate,  (diflfering  from 
the  former,  then,  as  mechanicians  do  from  mechanics,)  and  have 
hence  a  ground  in  the  philosophy  of  their  own  being,  and  hence, 


21 

also,  an  aim,  —  the  philosophical  observers;  or  finally,  in  some  large 
and  beautiful  minds,  we  can  discern  neither  of  these  ways  by  itself, 
but  only  what  seems  their  real  and  original  union,  wherein  the  di- 
vine reason  appears,  avrovof^ot  avrohxos,  and  facts  are  observed  not 
only,  but  eternal  laws  are  prescribed  to  science,^  —  the  naturalists. 
If,  then,  we  are  only  observers,  or  only  philosophical  observers,  we 
shall  not  only  err,  but  tend  in  the  one  case  to  prejudice  and  blind- 
ness, and  in  the  other  to  mere  theory  and  speculation  ;  hence,  too, 
as  we  are  in  one  or  the  other  dilemma,  we  shall  deny,  virtually,  the 
equally  true  and  equally  false  way  in  which  we  are  not  proceeding-, 
and  hence  finally  follows  that  waste  of  time  and  heart  in  paper 
wars,  when  discord  sits  formally  enthroned  by  man,  in  the  very  face 
and  eyes  of  infinite  Harmony. 

Let  us,  then,  possess  ourselves  of  what  Fries  has  discovered,  and 
give  him  credit  for  all  that  he  has  taught  us;  for  all  the  light  from 
his  words  which  has  made  nature  brighter  about  us.  But  there  is 
yet  another  artificial-natural  system  now  on  almost  every  botanist's 
table,  that  of  Endlicher.-  His  "Genera  Plantaruni"  is,  of  course, 
a  universal  work,  and  hence  his  system  appears  in  it  complete, 
which  gives  it  great  advantages  practically.  Starting  from  funda- 
mental views  not  foreign  to  those  of  Fries,  and  adopting,  indeed,  to 
some  extent  the  same  general  divisions,  the  system  before  us  will 
be  seen  to  differ  from  the  other,  and  if  rather  apparently  only,  still 
considerably. 

The  following  view  of  the  construction  of  the  system  I  take  from 
the  Grundziige  of  Endlicher  and  Unger,  p.  409,  &c. 

The  Affinity  of  species  consists  especially  in  the  similarity  in 
structure  of  parts  having  the  same  functions,  and  is  the  greater,  in 
proportion  as  more  parts  agreeing  in  functions  agree  also  in  structure. 

Similar  structure  in  parts  which  are  dissimilar  as  to  their  func- 
tions, presents  only  Analogy. 

Agreement  in  the  characters  of  fructification,  since  it  supposes 
similar  anatomical  relations,  denotes  a  nearer  degree  of  affinity  than 
that  which  consists  in  a  mere  resemblance  in  anatomical  relations. 

The  nearer  degrees  of  Affinity  of  particular  species  may  then  be 
estimated  by  the  agreement  of  their  organological  characters,  and 
in  particular  of  their  characters  of  fructification,  while  only  a  re- 
moter affinity  is  indicated  by  anatomical  resemblance. 

The  affinity,  moreover,  seems  the  nearer,  the  more  particular 
parts  agree  with  one  another,  and  the  weightier  tlie  points  of  view 
are  from  which  they  can  be  compared  together. 

1  Um  die  F'Qlle  zu  bewaltigen,  bedurfte  es  eines  Mannes  wie  Linne,  dem 
diewirksame  Gewandheit  nicht  abging,  um  eine  Methode,  die.wie  die  Philoso- 
phia  Botanica,  den  ewigen  Gesetzen  des  menschlichen  Verstandes  entsprech- 
end,  nie  altern  wird,  dem  widerstrebenden  Zeitalter  aufzunOthigen.  Endlicher 
&  Unger.     GrundzOge,  p.  xi. 

C'est  le  livre  le  plus  philosophique  que  j'ai  vu  de  ma  vie.  J.  J.  Rousseau, 
Lettr. 

Quippe  qui  et  canones  Philosophiaj  Botanica)  ubique  servare  ac  applicare 
religionis  ducara,     Sprengel,  Syst.  praef. 

2  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordines  Naturales  disposita,  auctore  Stepha- 
no  Endlicher.  Vindob.  1836-1840.  GrundzOge  der  Botanik  entworfen  von 
Stephan  Endlicher  und  Franz  Unger.    Wien.    1843. 


2S 

Agreement  of  the  parts  of  fructification,  in  all  essential  charac- 
ters, gfives  us,  as  the  nearest  degree  of  systematical  affinity,  the  no- 
tion Genus.  Genera  which  are  distinguished  from  one  another  by 
a  greater  or  smaller  number  of  characters,  can  once  more,  according 
to  the  degree  of  agreement  of  several  or  more  characters  of  fructi- 
fication, and  according  to  the  importance  of  the  same,  be  considered 
as  nearer  or  remoter  allied  ;  and  further,  according  to  the  structure 
of  the  seed  and  the  fruit,  and  no  less  according  to  the  make  of  the 
axis  of  inflorescence,  and  the  number,  position,  and  relations  of 
connection  of  the  appendicular  organs  arranged  upon  it,  be  compre- 
hended in  Orders  and  Classes, 

The  anatomical  characters  which  express  the  remotest  degrees 
of  affinity  and  the  most  essential  distinctions,  may  be  employed 
finally  for  the  construction  of  principal  sections  and  subsections  of 
the  whole  Plant-kingdom,  under  which  the  inferior  sections— Class- 
es, Orders,  Genera  —  can  be  arranged. 

The  Plant-kingdom  presents  no  single  unbroken  series  of  forms 
gradually  passing  into  each  other,  but  much  rather  many  Groups, 
quite  distinct  from  each  other,  and  representing  differences  of  struc- 
ture. 

The  signification,  the  importance,  and  the  reciprocal  relations  of 
different  forms,  which  appear  as  deviations  from  a  common  type, 
within  the  particular  groups,  are  also  incapable  of  being  represented 
in  a  single  series. 

But  the  system,  which  cannot  represent  the  groups  formed  after 
certain  types,  either  as  diverging  from  a  common  centre,  or  con- 
verging thereto,  which  must,  therefore,  place  them  in  a  single  se- 
ries, does  this  in  an  ascending  sequence,  according  to  the  higher 
and  more  manifold  development  of  all  parts,  in  which  sequence  all 
are  brought  into  order  arbitrarily.^  It  can,  therefore,  be  considered 
a  natural  scheme  only  in  so  far  as  it  includes  the  notion  of  nearer 
affinity  under  that  of  remoter. 

According  to  the  two  ground-differences  which  appear  in  the 
anatomical  structure  of  plants,  they  divide  into  two  principal  groups, 
the  one  consisting  wholly  of  cells  —  Cell-plants  {PlantfB  cellulares ; 
Thallophyta),  and  the  other  of  cells  and  vessels,  and  having,  also, 
an  axis  and  appendicular  organs,  —  Vessel-plants  or  Axis-plants 
{Plantce  vasculares ;  Cormophyta), 

The  Thallophyta  fall  into  two  Sections; — I.  Protophyta [under 
which  are  the  Classes  AlgsB  and  Lichenes),  and  II.  Hysterophyta 
(Fungi). 

The  Cormophyta  divide  into  three  Sections;  —  I.  Acrobi-ya 
(Musci;  Filices;  Cycadeae ;  Rhizantheas ;)  II.  Amphibrya  (Grami- 
nese  ;  Cyperacese  ;  Liliaceae ;  Orchidese  ;  Palmse,  &c.).  III.  Acram- 
phibrya  (containing  the  Dicotyledoneous  plants  generally). 

Under  these  Sections  the  Classes  are  arranged,  and  under  them 
follow  the  Orders.  No  further  view  of  Endlicher's  System  seems 
necessary  in  this  place  beside  what  is  given  in  the  following 
scheme,  which  can  be  compared  with  the  similar  one  of  Fries's 
System,  subjoined. 

^  It  is,  however,  not  essential  whether  the  series  be  ascending  or  descending. 


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34 

So  far  as  the  Classes,  then,  we  may  thus  compare  the  above,  it 
being  remembered  that  the  table  of  Fries's  disposition  is  from  a 
local  Swedish  Flora,  and  therefore  very  incomplete.  But  I  can 
extend  this  paper  no  further.  I  am  far  from  satisfied  with  it  in  any 
respect,  though  it  is  the  result  of  no  little  labor.  That  it  may  not 
be  wholly  without  use  to  others  is  my  earnest  hope. 

To  botanists  the  sketches  of  Fries's  method  and  system,  too  little 
known  here,  may  be  of  interest  and  value  ;  and  to  all  who  religious- 
ly admire  nature,  the  general  views  of  the  distinguished  writers 
mentioned  are  commended.  Oken's  work  was  written,  not  so  much 
for  scientific  students  as  others,  and  though  his  system  will  not 
stand,  there  are  great  truths  developed  in  it  which  must  endure. 
We  can  follow  these  out  and  accept  them  in  Fries.  But  as  a  Sys- 
tem, I  would  no  more  accept  it  than  I  would  build  a  system  from 
the  same  rudiments,  as  they  are  truly  and  perfectly  presented  by 
Milton :  — 

"  So  from  the  root 

Springs  lighter  the  green  stalk:  from  thence  the  leaves 

More  airy  :  last,  the  bright  consummate  flower 

Spirits  odorous  breathes." 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  science  for  the  million.  No  man  can 
be  too  able  or  too  learned  to  teach,  and  what  is  false  in  itself  can 
be  true  for  no  class.  Hence,  the  system  that  is  accepted  by  the 
highest  suffrages  of  men  of  science  is  the  only  system  for  all ;  and 
on  the  other  hand,  what  they  reject  as  a  system  is  rejected  for  all, 
and  is  of  no  use  to  any  body,  if  it  is  reasonable  that  the  best  qualified 
should  decide.  So  much  for  the  system  in  itself;  as  to  its  truths, 
tliey  are  the  property  of  science,  which  alone  can  make  them  avail- 
able. Thus  botanists  have  accepted  nothing  of  Oken's  philosophy 
thus  far,  except  what  Fries  has  represented,  and  as  he  has  repre- 
sented it.  I  have  reviewed  Oken's  system,  therefore,  only  to  pass 
through  and  beyond  it. 

The  difierence  between  the  mere  scientific  observers  of  nature 
and  the  complete  naturalist  has  already  been  shadowed  out.  I  will 
add  only  here,  that  we  cannot  come  to  the  study  of  nature  with 
minds  too  well  developed,  with  a  philosophy  too  deep  and  thorough, 
or  with  hearts  too  true.  If  the  rapt  admirer  of  the  wonders  and 
the  beauties  of  life  and  being  might  well  come  to  learn  of  our 
knowledge  the  laws  and  the  history  of  what  he  loves,  let  us  remem- 
ber that  we  have  the  best  right  to  all  the  pleasure  that  he  has  dis- 
covered, and  that  we  are  not  complete  if  we  do  not  possess  it  all. 
Linnseus  was  as  hearty  a  lover  and  admirer  of  nature  as  if  he  had 
been  nothing  more. 

"  So  build  we  up  the  being  that  we  are  ; 

Thus  deeply  drinking  in  the  Soul  of  Things 

We  shall  be  wise  perforce  j 

Whate'er  we  see, 
Whate'er  we  feel,  by  agency  direct 
Or  indirect,  shall  tend  to  feed  and  nurse 
Our  faculties,  shall  fix  in  calmer  seats 
Of  moral  strength,  and  raise  to  loftier  heights 
Of  love  divine,  our  intellectual  Soul."  i 

1  £zcursion. 


AN    ENUMERATION 


OF 


NORTH  AMERICAN  LICHENES, 

WITH  I 

A  PRELIMINARY  VIEW  OF  THE  STRUCTURE  AND 
HISTORY  OF  THIS  ORDER  OF  ALG^E. 


A    VIEW 


STRUCTURE  AND  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  LICHENES. 


LicHENEs  are  Plants :  of  all  plants  most  frequent  throughout  the 
globe  ;  appearing  wherever  are  rocks,  stones,  earth,  and  living  or 
dead  wood ;  wherever  there  is  air  moving  over  earth,  and  light, 
and  time  is  given  ;  extending  from  the  burning  deserts  of  the  torrid 
zone  to  the  frozen  deserts  of  the  arctic  zone ;  ascending  to  the 
highest  naked  rocks  of  the  highest  alps ;  ceasing  only  at  perpetual 
water  and  perpetual  snow. 

Lichenes  are  (considered  as  belonging  to  the  system)  an  order  of 
Algse,  or  Protophyta,  which  is  a  section  of  Thallophyta. 

Thallophtta  (Homonemese,  Fr.)  are  the  lowest  forms  of  vege- 
table life.  With  one  of  the  two  sections  into  which  this  greater 
division  falls,  —  Protophyta  or  Algee,  —  vegetation  has  been  said  to 
begin  and  from  it  to  ascend :  with  the  other,— Hyslerophyta,  or  Fun- 
gi,—  the  whole  vegetable  system  to  be,  as  it  were,  concluded  and 
finished. 

Thallophyta  are  plants  merely  cellular ;  the  external  organs  of 
which  are  confused  and  coadunate  in  one  body  ;  with  a  system  of 
fructification  immediately  originating,  by  simple  metamorphosis, 
from  the  primary  vegetative  system,  —  the  cells  collapsing  into  spo- 
ridia,  and  these  germinating,  themselves  being  prolonged  into 
threads,  which  are  either  discrete,  or  confluent  in  a  homogeneous 
mass. 

Protophyta,  or  AlgeB,  are  Thallophytal  plants,  and  are  either 
aerial  or  aquatic  ;  they  are  distinguished  by  having  reproductive 
gemmaceous  cells  (gonidia),  which  are  the  prototype  or  elementary 
analogue  of  leaves;  they  are  successively  developed  and  indefinite; 
and  absorb  nutrition  from  the  surrounding  element. 

Htsterophyta,  or  Fung-i,  are  Thallophytal  plants,  which  are 
produced  in  decaying  or  perished  organic  matter ;  which  want  go- 
nidia; and  are  thence  at  once  perfectly  developed  without  succes- 
sive evolution,  and  definite  ;  and  absorb  nutrition  only  from  the 
matrix. 

Obs.  In  AlgflB,  we  discern  the  progressive  series  of  Thallophy- 
ta; wherein  the  vegetative  system  is  especially  developed,  and 
affinity  both  with  superior  and  inferior  sections  is  indicated ;  in 
Fungi,  the  regressive  series  is  evidently  expressed.  The  whole 
Fungus  is  a  fructification,  and  in  this  the  Fungi  as  much  excel,  as 


28 

they  are  inferior  in  the  vegetative  system.  There  is  no  prototype 
of  fructification  among"  the  Algse,  which  has  not  in  the  Fungi  its 
ectype  more  perfectly  developed.  (Cf.  Fries.  Syst  Mycol.  i.  xxii., 
Lichenogr.  p.  xii.)  The  AlgsB,  moreover,  having  gonidia,  or  repro- 
ductive buds,  are  hence  successively  explicated ;  absorb  and  pre- 
pare nutrition  from  the  surrounding  element ;  and  depend  less  upon 
place  ;  propagating,  moreover,  more  frequently,  and  in  the  lowest 
forms  only,  by  gonidia :  —  the  Fungi,  on  the  contrary,  wanting  go- 
nidia, have  no  successive  evolution,  and  propagate  normally  by 
sporidia.  (Compare  the  two  classes  of  HomonemesB  in  the  Clavis 
to  Fries's  system,  given  in  the  previous  essay.) 

Alg^  are  either  aerial,  (amphibial,)  or  aquatic,  and  fi\\\  into  three 
Orders,  Lichenes,  Byssacese,  and  Phycese,  which  are  distinguished 
as  follows :  — 

Aerial  Algoe,  or  Ldchenes^  are  perennial,  with  interrupted  vegeta- 
tion (that  is,  subject  to  apparent  death  and  revival,  according  as 
they  are  conditionated  by  moisture  or  drought);  exogeneous,  and 
forming  distinct  layers.  Amphibial  AlgcR^  or  Byssace(E,  are  peren- 
nial, with  vegetation  at  intervals  retarded  ;  heterogeneous,  and  not 
forming  distinct  layers.  Aquatic  Algm,  or  PhycetB,  have  an  uninter- 
rupted vegetation,  and  are  either  endogeneous  and  multiplied  by 
sporidia  and  gonidia — FucacecB :  or  homogeneous  and  without 
apothecia  or  true  sporidia,  and  hence  multiplied  only  by  gonidia  — 
UlvacefBA 

Obs.  The  order  Byssacese,  as  separated  and  defined  by  Fries, 
seems  necessary  in  the  system,  at  least ;  and  the  plants  composing 
it  are  well  distinguished  from  Lichenes  and  Phycese,  both  by  char- 
acters and  habit.  (Cf.  Fl.  Scanica,  p.  291,  Linnsea,  1830,  p.  535, 
Lichenogr.  reform.  Prsel.  ii.,  which  may  be  compared  with  the 
author's  earlier  views  in  Stirp.  Femsjo,  p.  41.) 

Character  Phytographicus  Lichenum  :  Apothecia  nucleo  ascigero, 
raro  primitus  pulveraceo-collapso.  Thallus  strato  infra  corticale 
disc  re  to. 

Byssaceabum  :  Apothecia  ascigera,  raro  in  ascos  dissoluta. 
Thalli  strata,  corticale  et  medullare,  confusa. 

FucACEARUM  :  Apothocia  e  thallo  formata,  sporidils  peridiolis  aut 
muco  involutis.  Thalli  stratum  exterius,  baud  discretum,  corticans, 
gonidiis  sparsis. 

Ulvacearum:  Apothecia  et  sporidia  nulla.  Thallus  absque  stra- 
tisdissimillibus  et  discretis,  gonidiis  sparsis,  sporidiorumvicibus  fun- 
gentibus. 

Character  Typicus  Lichenum  :  Stirpes  radice  [cellulis  Jistulosis\ 
trunco  [lepra)  et  foliis  [gonidiis]  in  unum  corpus  corticatum  confu- 
sis,  sed  in  stratis  discretis,  fructificatione  metamorphosi  simplici  enata. 

Byssacearum:  Stirpes  radice  trunco  et  foliis  cum  strato  corticali 
confusis,  nullis  stratis  discretis;  fructificatione  simplici  metamor- 
phosi enata. 

Fucacearum  :  Stirpes  radice  et  foliis  in  corpus  truncosum  aut 

1  Fucaceae  and  Ulvacete  are  used  by  Fries  semu  latiori,  to  indicate  the  two 
great  sections  of  Aquatic  Alpae.  They  correspond,  respectively  to  the  Asco- 
phycse,  and  Gongylophycae  of  Reichenbach. 


frondosum  confusis,  strato  cortical!  nullo,  sed  extus  compactiores  et 
epidermidi  vulgo  tectse,  fructificatione  metamorphosi  simplici  enata, 

Ulvacearum  :  Stirpes  radice  et  foliis  in  unum  corpus  homoge- 
neum  et  similare  confusis ;  metamorphosi  ad  eporidia  formanda 
milla.^ 

The  place  of  Lichenes  in  the  System,  and  their  relations  to 
other  Thallophytal  plants,  as  well  as  their  more  essential  relations 
to  other  sections  of  Algse,  being  thus  indicated,  it  is  next  in 
order  to  describe  their  production,  development,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  their  fructificative  organs. 

Auctores  :  —  FrieSj  Lichenogr.  prcel.  i. ;  Id.  Fl.  Scan. ;  Endlicher^ 
Gen.  PI.  1. 1. 

I.  Gej^esis. 

Original  or  equivocal  generation  has  been  assumed  to  occur  in 
the  Lichenes,  and  Meyer  has  even  ventured  to  describe  the  pro- 
cess. But  Fries  declares  that  he  has  never  been  able  to  find  any 
grounds  for  it ;  and  moreover  that  the  germination  of  lichens  from 
sporidia,  as  observed  by  him,  presented  appearances  so  exactly  cor- 
responding with  what  Meyer  described,  that  he  cannot  but  conclude 
that  sporidia  were  present  in  this  case  also.^ 

Lichenes  are  reproduced  by,  L  Gonidia,  and,  IL  Sporidia. 

The  gonidial  propagation  will  be  first  described.  The  thallus  of 
lichens  is  disposed  in  four  layers ;  the  cortical,  medullary,  sporige- 
rous,  and  gonimous  ;  or,  more  essentially,  it  is  distinguished  into  three 
layers :  the  cortical,  medullary,  and  gonimous,  of  which  last  the 
sporigerous  is  a  metamorphosis.  The  gonidia  exist  primarily  as 
the  gonimous  layer,  and  are  a  disposition  of  cells  immediately  be- 
low the  cortical,  and  above,  or  constituting  the  upper  portion  of  the 
medullary  layer ;  the  cells  normally  green,  spheroidal,  originally 
composed  of  a  hyaline  membrane  surrounding  a  grumose  matter 
without  apparent  structure.  While  existing  only  as  the  gonimous 
stratum,  it  is  evident  that  the  gonidia  cannot  come  to  the  surface  of 
the  lichen,  and  in  this  state,  though  most  perfect,  they  are  incapa- 
ble of  propagation.  They  appear  on  the  surface  in  the  form  of  So- 
redia,  which,  whether  a  powdery  indumentum  or  rounded  heaps, 
consist  of  gonidia,  with  more  or  less  mixture  of  cells  of  the  other 
strata.  Here,  then,  the  gonidia  appear  in  their  secondary  state, 
constituting  subspheroidal  globules  of  a  uniform  grumose  matter, 
which  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  cellular,  and  is  apparently  the  same 
matter  which  exists  primarily  within  the  cells  of  the  gonimous  stra- 
tum. The  first  increment  of  the  gonidia  in  the  secondary  state  is 
therefore  a  mere  confluence  of  single  cells,  and  thence  a  dilatation 
and  prolongation  of  the  new  mass.  Soredia  are  exceedingly  com- 
mon in  Lichenes,  and  the  propagation  by  them  is  much  more  frequent 
than  by  sporidia.  Their  evolution  depends  as  well  on  the  predis- 
posing individuality  of  the  species,  as  on  external  moments  (Mois- 

1  Fr.  Lichenogr.  p.  35. 

2  De  hac  Iheoria  non  plura  a  me  afferenda  sunt  5  fatear,  me  illam  non  intel- 
ligere,  eamque  mentis  potius,  quam  oculorum  acie,  esse  observatam,  censere. 
(Fr.  Lichenogr.  p.  173.) 

3* 


so 

ture,  Light).  They  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  certain  other 
regular  excrescences,  first  distinguished  by  Wallroth,  [stauromata,) 
which  arise  in  and  consist  of  the  cortical  layer  alone,  of  the  outer 
cells  of  which  they  are  only  anamorphoses. 

Gonidia  propagate  either,  1st.  in  the  matrix,  or  original  thallus, 
forming  leaves,  scales,  &c.,  thereon  ;  or,  2d.  by  forming  new  thallus 
external  to,  and  apart  from,  the  original  thallus,  —  new  individuals, 
that  is,  of  the  original  thallus,  but  not  of  the  species.  To  the  frequen- 
cy of  the  gonidial  propagation  is  to  be  ascribed  as  well  the  great 
excess  of  abnormal  states  in  lichens,  as  the  numberless  variations 
into  which  the  species  run. 

06*.  G.  G.  Koerber  [De  Gonidiis  Lichenum^  Dissertation  Berol. 
1839)  has  given  the  most  comprehensive  view  of  the  Gonidia  with 
which  I  am  acquainted.  He  has  embraced  the  most  of  Wallroth's 
important  conclusions,  and  set  them  forth  in  a  clear  and  somewhat 
improved  form.  I  repeated  myself  some  of  Koerber's  important 
experiments  on  the  spot,  with  a  powerful  microscope,  and  with  suc- 
cess. He  concludes  that  the  gonidia  are  the  most  essential  parts 
of  Lichenes,  as  they  are  taken  by  Fries  to  be  the  principal  distinc- 
tion of  Algae  in  general  from  Fungi :  —  that  in  fine  the  gonidium  is 
the  ultimate  living  atom  and  elementary  monad  of  lichens ;  and 
hence  that  every  lichen  is  a  synthesis,  a  systematical  individual 
which  may  contain  countless  numbers  of  true  individuals ;  all  of 
which  flows  directly  from  our  primary  views  of  the  structure  of 
lichens  and  the  nature  of  the  gonidia.  Eschweiler  dissents  from 
some  of  the  above  views  (Fl.  Bras.  1,  p.  56). 

The  second  mode  of  propagation  in  Lichenes  is  by  Sporidia.  These 
are  cells  produced  by  a  metamorphosis  of  gonidia.  They  are  the  ana- 
logues of  seeds,  and  produce  new  individuals  of  the  species,  and  the 
propagation  by  them  is  the  typical  and  primary  :  — just  as  the  gonidia 
are  the  analogues  of  buds,  produce  new  individuals  of  the  parent 
only,  and  are  the  medium  of  the  succedaneous  and  secondary  propa- 
gation. The  sporidia  are  eubglobose  or  elliptical,  and  either  naked 
in  the  thalamium,or  contained  in  elongated  sub  vertical  cells  [asci; 
which  are  again  sometimes  themselves  included  in  other  asci),  which 
are  formed  in  the  thalamium,  or  that  part  of  the  lichen  which  is  the 
analogue  of  the  blossom.  The  asci  are  very  variable  in  form,  but 
always  elongated,  and  more  or  less  cylindrical,  clavate,  or  elliptico- 
cylindrical.  They  are  commonly  more  obsolete  in  the  higher  and 
more  perfect  lichens,  and  most  remarkable  in  the  lower  divisions. 
Very  different  genera  have  asci  perfectly  similar.  The  spores, 
when  they  occur  naked,  are  for  the  most  part  collected  together 
without  order  ;  frequently  somewhat  coherent ;  and  black,  or  more 
rarely  purple  and  lemon-colored :  when  included  in  asci,  they  ap- 
pear either  in  a  simple  or  in  binary,  ternary,  or  quaternary  series, 
and  are  either  colorless,  or  lightly  tinged,  —  gray,  yellowish,  reddish. 
They  germinate  by  simple  elongation  into  threads,  by  the  conflu- 
ence of  which  the  hypothallus  is  formed. 

06*.  Eschweiler  (Syst.  p.  9,)  has  pointed  out  some  differences 
between  the  spores  of  lichens  and  those  of  fungi,  —  and  comparing 
the  asci  of  more  perfect  lichens  to  those  of  fungi,  he  considers  the 


91 

same  parts  in  the  less  perfect  (where  they  are  largest,  most  con- 
stant in  form,  and  most  numerous)  as  rather  resembling  the  asci  of 
aquatic  algee,  and  not  so  much  in  these  last  seminal  as  infusorial 
in  their  nature.  In  his  latest  work  (Lich.  in  Mart.  Fl.  Brasil. 
1.  p.  60)  he  denies  that  there  is  any  certain  limit  between  asci  and 
sporae  in  lichens,  and  further  says,  that  it  is  amost  impossible  to  de- 
cide whether  the  annulate  appearance  of  the  asci  is  occasioned  by 
septa  or  strictures,  or  by  included  asci  or  sporsB.  I  can  only  briefly 
refer  to  these  questions.  The  whole  has  been  most  fully  illustrated 
by  F^e,  in  the  second  part  of  his  "Essai  sur  les  Cryptogames,"  &c  , 
Paris,  1837;  with  five  plates;  containing  a  vast  amount  of  informa- 
tion. The  principles  deduced  by  Prof.  F^e,  from  the  general  re- 
sults of  his  observations,  will,  perhaps,  not  be  considered  altogether 
admissible,  though  certainly  of  great  value.  They  lead  him  to  pro- 
nounce Peltigera,  Nephroma,  and  Solorina  distinct  genera,  which 
is  confirmed  by  a  striking  natural  habit  in  each.  But  again 
they  compel  him  to  separate  Umbilicaria  pustulata  from  the  rest  of 
the  genus,  and  to  make  two  genera  of  this  most  natural  group,  —  a 
construction  irreconcilable  with  our  definite  knowledge  of  these 
plants  from  all  other  points  of  view.  In  the  same  way,  he  is  led  to 
refer  Stereocaulon  to  Cladonia.  But  it  does  not  seem  to  me  that 
the  present  views  of  the  author  are  in  any  degree  final,  and  they 
will  probably  be  hereafter  developed  more  satisfactorily. 

Beside  the  propagation  by  Gonidia,  and  that  by  Sporidia,  there 
may  be  mentioned  another,  which  is,  however,  rather  accidental  in 
its  nature,  and  perhaps  only  a  modification  of  the  gonidial  propaga- 
tion,—  that  by  the  HypothaUus  (Protothallus,  Mey.).  This,  origi- 
nally the  elementary  state  of  lichens,  in  which  their  layers  are 
confused,  is  afterwards  discernible  as  cylindrical  cells  in  the  hori- 
zontal lichens,  and  also  as  the  pythmenes  or  fibres  occurring  at 
their  margins  or  on  their  under  surfaces;  and  in  crustaceous  species 
it  forms  the  base  of  the  thallus  closely  adnate  to  the  matrix,  of 
various  thickness,  and  in  color  varying  from  black  or  white.  Crus- 
taceous lichens,  which  had  been  scraped  from  rocks,  were  found 
by  Fries  to  grow  again  from  the  remaining  portions  of  the  hypo- 
thallus.  In  like  manner,  Schserer  found  that  new  individuals  of 
Umbilicaria  were  sometimes  produced  from  the  pythmenes  or 
fibres  of  a  species  alone.  "Hypothalli  vis  individua  propagandi  non 
deneganda ;  continet  enim  gonidia  in  potestate."  Fr. 

Auct.  de  Genesi:  —  FrieSf  Lichenogr.  p.  52;  Meyer,  Entwick. 
pp.  314,  319,  &c.;  Wallroth,  Naturgesch.  der  Flechten  1.  255,  &c.; 
Eschweilerj  Syst  I.e. ;  Koerber,  Dissert.  1.  c. 

II.      MORPHOSIS. 

The  ulterior  evolution  of  the  thallus  consists  in  the  segregation 
of  organs,  either  together  with,  or  from  the  hypothallus,  which  had 
been  primarily  involved  in  it.  The  nisus  of  the  young  thallus  is 
either  centrifugal,  producing  a  thallus  typically  horizontally  ex- 
panded,— or  centripetal,  producing  a  thallus  normally  arising  verti- 
cally from  the  matrix.  These  directions  are  not,  however,  in  polar 
opposition,  since,  by  constriction,  the  centrifugal  becomes  ceutrip- 


etal,  as  in  Cetraria.  In  Cladonia  and  Stereocaulon,  we  observe  a 
double  thallus,  that  is,  a  vertical,  which  we  call  podetium,  arising: 
from  the  primary  horizontal ;  and  the  former  is,  again,  by  the  evolu- 
tion of  gonidia,  also  besprinkled  with  another  kind  of  horizontal 
thallus  in  the  shape  of  leaf-like  scales.  The  horizontal  thallus  is 
either,  I.  Crustaceous ;  or,  II.  Foliaceous;  which  are  well  distin- 
guished by  habit,  though  their  limits  are  not  strictly  definable. 
Thus  a  crustaceous  lichen  may  become  effigurate  at  the  margin,  or, 
with  age,  all  over ;  and  a  foliaceous  lichen,  either  by  its  evolution 
being  hindered,  or  by  anamorphosis,  becomes  often  crustaceous. 
(This  suggests  another  reason  for  caution  in  judging  of  lichens  from 
a  hasty  view  of  the  mere  habit.)  A  crustaceous  thallus  of  the  most 
simple  kind  is  one  equally  explicated  and  concrete  of  the  hypothal- 
lus  {th.  contiguus),  which,  with  age,  becomes  often  cracked  and 
chinky.  Next  to  this  is  the  thallus  coming  forth  from  the  hypothal- 
lus,  here  and  there  conglobated,  which  is  either  innate  in  the  hypo- 
thallus  [th.  areolaius\  or  more  discrete  from  the  hypothallus  [ih. 
granulosus)^  the  granvla  being  rounded  in  the  latter,  and  flattened 
{^areoloe)  in  the  former.  By  the  coalition  of  many  areolas  or  granula 
these  become  lobate,  and  pass  thus  into  a  new  form  {th.  crusiaceo- 
squamulosus.)  In  the  younger  state  of  a  crustaceous  thallus,  it  is, 
sometimes,  from  the  presence  of  cylindrical  cells,  plicato-radiose  at 
the  margin,  while  yet  in  its  older  state,  the  lichen,  in  consequence 
of  the  vegetation  of  these  cells  becoming  suppressed,  returns  to  a 
uniform  crustaceous  habit  A  foliaceous  thallus  is  either  originally 
composite  [th.  squamulosus,  to  be  cautiously  distinguished  from  the 
th.  crustaceo-squamulosus),  or  it  is  more  simple  and  entire  [th.fron- 
dosus^th.  monophyllus.)  Of  the  vertical  thallus  there  are  two  kinds, 
the  compressed  {th,  subfoliaceus),  and  the  terete  {th.  fi-uciiculosus). 
Of  both  of  these  the  filamentous  and  the  pendulous  thalli  are  degen- 
erations ;  of  which,  indeed,  there  occur  instances  in  the  merely  fo- 
liaceous thallus. 

Among  the  lowest  tribes  of  lichens,  we  find  the  thallus  innate  in 
the  matrix  of  the  plant  {th.  hypophlceodes)  wherein  the  hypothallus  is 
deficient,  and  the  thallus  is  inconspicuous.  Much  as  these  recede 
from  other  lichens,  it  is  only  as  a  degeneration,  nor  are  the  limits 
determinable  between  the  thallus  which  is  innate  in  the  matrix,  and 
that  which  is  superficial  {th.  ectophlceodes). 

Auct.de  Morphosi: — Fries,  Lichenogr.  p.  58;  JWeycr,  Ent wick.  p. 
316,  &c. ;  fVallroth,  Naturgesch.  der  Flechten  1.  p.  t4,  &c. 

III.  Metamorphosis. 
The  only  normal  metamorphosis  in  Lichenes  is  the  formation  of 
Apothecia.  These  repeat,  in  narrower  limits,  the  elementary  organs 
of  the  thallus,  which  appear  in  them  more  defined  and  ennobled. 
In  the  structure  of  the  parts  of  fructification,  lichens  agree  with 
fungi,  and  hence  these  parts  in  both  classes  have  the  same  names. 
We  distinguish  in  the  apothecium  first  the  Thalamium,  or  fructifica- 
tion itself, and  second,  the  ExcipvIum,or  that  which  contains  it.  In 
the  thalamium  we  find  sporidia  and  asci ;  the  sporidia  being  either 
naked,  or  included  in  the  asci,  which  are  themselves  sometimes  in- 


d3 

eluded  in  other  asci.  Sporidia  are  the  analogues  of  seeds,  and  the 
medium  of  the  typical  propagation  of  lichens.  The  excipulum  is 
either  of  the  same  color  with,  and  similar  to,  the  thallus  {exc.  thallo- 
des)\  or  of  different  color,  and  heterogenous  nature  {exc.  proprium). 
Both  are  sometimes  present ;  but  hardly  ever,  typically,  are  both 
absent.  The  excipulum  becomes  the  margin  of  an  open  thalamium. 
It  is  sometimes  suppressed  by  the  growth  of  the  thalamium,  and  is 
sometimes  scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  thallus. 

How  the  apothecia  arise  is  easily  to  be  seen,  but  what  beside  the 
nisus  of  nature  determines  their  different  evolution  it  is  more  diffi- 
cult to  perceive.  In  part  this  seems  to  depend  on  differences  of 
climate,  since  many  widely  diffused  species  produce  apothecia  only 
in  peculiar  regions;  in  part,  also,  it  would  seem,  on  light,  since 
apothecia  are  almost  always  produced  on  the  upper  surface  [apoth, 
antica);  and  only  very  rarely  on  the  under  side  {apoth.  postica). 
The  more  imperfect  the  lichen  the  more  profoundly  do  the  apothe- 
cia arise:  in  the  Calicia,  the  VerrucarisB,  &c.,  even  below  the  crust 
and  in  the  matrix  itself;  in  very  many,  in  the  medullary  layer;  and, 
in  those  best  developed,  even  in  the  cortical  layer.  We  have  hence 
apoth. immersa  and  superficialia ;  innala,  adnata;  sessilia  and  ehvata. 
The  fulcrum  of  apothecia  is  either  formed  of  the  excipulum  thai- 
lodes  (/>of/tce//w5;  apoth.  podicellata),  OT  of  the  excipulum  proprium 
{stipes;  apoth.  stipitata). 

The  typical  form  of  apothecia  is  round,  but  oblong  and  linear 
apothecia  occur  normally,  and  these  last  by  composition  become 
ramose  {apoth.  lirellceformia).  An  excipulum  proprium  which  is 
typically  closed  we  call  periihecium,  as  in  Verrucaria.  Besides 
these,  we  distinguish  apothecia  which  are  deeply  excavated,  with  a 
contracted  margin  {apoth.  urceolata) ;  those  slightly  concave,  with 
an  elevated  margin  {apoth.  scutelliformia) ;  those  dilated,  flat,  with- 
out prominent  margin  {apoth.  peltceformia) ;  those  convex,  in  which 
the  margin  is  repressed  {apoth.  cephaloidea);  those  between  scutel- 
late  and  ^teltssform  {apotL  disciformia) ',  and  those  between  scutel- 
late  and  cephaloid  {apoth.  tuberculata). 

All  apothecia  are  primarily  closed,  the  included  thalamium  being 
conglobate,  gelatinous-waxy,  and  the  asci  converging  {apoth.  nuclei- 
forme).  If  the  apothecia  remain  closed,  the  nucleiform  thalamium 
deliquesces,  and  the  sporidia  escape  through  an  ostiole,  which  is 
either  a  simple  pore,  or  one  at  the  summit  of  a  papilla.  If  the  apo- 
thecia themselves  gape  open,  the  thalamium  is  either  flattened  into 
a  rigid  and  persistent  lamina  {apoth.  subdisci forme),  or  shortly  after^ 
itsel  f  collapses  into  a  powdery  mass.  If,  finally,  the  nucleiform  state 
of  the  thalamium  is  so  quickly  concluded  that  the  lamina  appears 
originally  open,  with  not  even  connivent  margins,  which  occurs  es- 
pecially in  apothecia  produced  from  the  cortical  layer,  wherein  a 
punctiform  disk  shows  itself  before  the  excipulum  is  formed,  we 
have  a  third  kind  {apoth.  apertum). 

Among  those  lichens  which  have  closed  apothecia  (Angiocarpi), 
many  thalamia  are  sometimes  included  in  a  single  excipulum  {apoth. 
composita),  and  again  many  are  sometimes  confluent  in  one.  In 
like  manner,  among  the  lichens  with  open  apothecia  (Gymnocarpi), 


34 

we  find  sometimes  many  disks  confluent  in  one  {apoth,  symphycar- 
pcea).  There  are  many  forms  of  composite-conglomerate  apothe- 
cia.  The  apothecia  of  Umbilicaria  are  typically  simple,  and  either 
Bcutelliform  like  those  of  Lecidea,  or  lirellseform  like  those  of  Ope- 
grapha,  but  their  gyrose-plicate  evolution  is  so  normal  (even  when 
the  plicsB  are  deficient,  the  disk  being  chinked)  that  we  are  com- 
pelled to  regard  them,  taking  their  other  characters  into  considera- 
tion, a  distinct  genus. 

Obs.  Eschweiler's  latest  views  of  the  apothecia  (Fl.  Brasil.  1.  c.) 
may  be  referred  to,  as  also  those  expressed  in  his  Systema.  No 
one  has  studied  the  structure  of  these  parts  more  accurately. 

Auct.  de  Metamorphosi :  —  Fries,  Lichenogr.  p.  63;  Meytr^  Ent- 
wick.  p.  314,  &c. ;  Eschweiler^  Syst.  1.  c.  and  Fl.  Bras.  I.e.;  Wallroth, 
Naturg.  der  Flecht.  1.  c. 

IV.    Anamorphosis. 

To  abnormal  development  Lichenes  are  peculiarly  exposed.  The 
far  greater  frequency  of  the  propagation  by  gonidia,  producing  new 
individuals  of  the  original  thai  1  us  only,  gives  rise  to  a  vast  number 
of  varying,  more  or  less  imperfect,  and  atypical  states.  The  mo- 
nographical  study  of  the  class,  without  regard  to  the  typical  or  aty- 
pical state  of  the  forms  of  vegetation  referred  to  it,  or  to  the  endless 
analogies  of  development  in  different  genera,  long  obscured  the 
scientific  system  of  these  plants,  and  infected  it  throughout  with 
error.  But  besides  the  gonidial  propagation,  the  variation  of 
lichens  has  other  and  no  less  active  causes, — in  climate,  station, 
age,  and  mechanical  obstruction;  and  yet  again  in  the  original  indi- 
viduality of  every  species,  developing  progressively  or  regressively 
from  its  ideal  type.  It  is,  then,  a  wide  field,  that  of  the.  anamor- 
phosis of  lichens ;  one,  indeed,  which  embraces  the  whole  circuit 
of  lichenose  vegetation.  In  its  history,  the  names  of  Fries,  Wall- 
roth,  and  Meyer  will  be  always  preserved. 

The  anamorphoses  of  the  hypothallus  are  especially  fallacious, 
since  herein  the  whole  lichenose  habit  disappears,  and  that  of  a 
Byssus  is  counterfeited  (the  hypothallus,  considered  per  se,  being 
itself  a  byssaceous  development).  In  places  exposed  to  the  sun, 
this  byssoid  degeneration  is  more  simple,  as  in  the  case  of  Bys- 
sus antiquitatis,  L.,  which  is  derived  from  a  black  hypothallus. 
But  in  moist  places  it  appears  as  floccose,  often  somewhat  ccespi- 
tose,  masses,  of  various  stature,  which  occur  in  large  patches,  and 
in  the  mountains  of  Sweden  have  been  satisfactorily  referred  to 
various  Lecidese,  Biatorse,  and  ParmelisB  (§  Patellaria).  These 
byssoid  states  of  lichens  have  been  described  as  Confervese  by 
authors,  and  with  lichenists  they  have  passed  sometimes  for  acci- 
dental excrescences  of  lichenose  vegetation,  their  apothecia,  when 
they  occurred,  bein^  taken  to  be  fungi. 

We  have  next  briefly  to  glance  at  the  anamorphoses  of  the  thal- 
lus.  These  are  referable  in  part  to  the  gonidial  propagation  gen- 
erally, that  is,  to  the  germination  of  the  cells  of  the  gonimous  layer, 
either  normally  or  abnormally,  producing,  in  the  first  place,  new 


35 

thallus  of  the  matrix,  either  within  or  without  it,  and  in  the  second, 
bursting  through  the  thallus  irregularly,  and  in  various  ways  alter- 
ing and  even  destroying  its  whole  habit.  (Another  anamorphosis 
which  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  that  we  are  to  describe,  is  that 
produced  by  a  change  of  the  exterior  cells  of  the  cortical  layer  into 
heterogeneous  bodies  (stauromata)  already  noticed,  which  often  re- 
semble, but  are  altogether  different  from  soredia.) 

In  a  very  common  kind  of  gonidial  anamorphosis,  the  thallus,  as 
it  were,  totally  deliquesces,  and  the  gonidia  every  where  bursting 
through  the  cellular  layer  above  them,  an  expanded  powdery  sur- 
face, consisting  of  gonidia  intermixed  with  cells  of  the  other  strata, 
is  formed,  —  which  is  what  we  call  Lepraria.  This  is  found  in 
crustaceous,  foliaceous,  and  vertical  lichens,  occurring  more  or  less 
marked,  and  if  sterile  constituting  the  Acharian  genus  of  the 
above  name,  which  name  is  now  used  only  to  denote  this  abnormal 
condition  of  the  lichenose  vegetation. 

Or,  again,  if  the  gonidia  break  out  in  those  regular  powdery 
heaps  which  we  call  soredia,  (this  evolution  taking  place  atypically, 
that  is,  contrary  to  the  original  type  of  the  species,)  and  overrun  the 
lichen,  the  cells  of  the  cortical  layer  adjacent  are  broken  and 
altered,  the  whole  plant  becomes  sterile,  and  a  monstrous  habit  is 
induced,  which  we  call  Variolaria.  The  various  forms  of  this,  origi- 
nating in  different  crustaceous  (as  most  commonly  in  Pertusaria)  or 
even  foliaceous  lichens,  constituted  the  Acharian  genus  of  the  same 
name.  Sorediiferous  states  of  lichens  cannot,  generally,  according 
to  Fries,  even  be  considered  varieties ;  and  he  thus  abolishes  Ra- 
malina  farinacea  (Lichen  farinaceus,  L.)  as  merely  R,  calycaris  so- 
rediifera  ;  and  in  the  same  way  some  other  long-received  and  com- 
mon species  and  varieties.  But  we  find  in  the  manner  of  appear- 
ance of  the  soredia  very  great  differences,  and  these  diversities  are 
of  more  weight  than  the  mere  presence  or  absence  of  this  develop- 
ment Their  importance  is  manifest  in  the  case  of  the  cyphellcB  of 
Sticta,  the  most  remarkable  form  of  soredia ;  and  peculiar  to  a  sin- 
gle very  natural  genus. 

The  two  kinds  of  anamorphosis  already  described  are  common, 
says  Fries,  to  all  Algro  ;  but  we  have  next  to  notice  one,  peculiar, 
it  would  seem,  to  lichens,  —  those  coralline,  subcylindrical,  elevated, 
and  here  and  there  branched  excrescences,  which,  appearing  in  and 
covering  more  or  less  a  crustaceous  thallus,  were  reckoned,  together 
with  the  thallus  in  which  they  broke  forth,  forms  of  a  distinct  ge- 
nus by  Acharius,  under  the  name  of  Isidium;  a  name  still  appro- 
priated to  this  state  of  vegetation  in  lichens.  The  formation  of 
Isidium  is  attributed  by  Meyer  to  an  elevation  of  the  cells  of  the 
cortical  layer,  by  the  protrusion  of  gonidia.  It  seems,  however, 
difficult  to  determine  the  relative  action  of  the  different  layers  in 
the  case  with  any  certainty.  A  crustaceous  thallus  is  often  so  much 
altered  by  this  anamorphosis,  that  its  original  habit  is  almost,  or 
entirely  lost,  and  it  is  matter  of  praise,  rather  than  censure,  that 
Acharius  separated  and  collected  all  these  states,  as  he  did  those 
others  already  mentioned,  —  but  the  very  same  development  occurs 
in  foliaceous  lichens,  and  is  conspicuous  in  some  of  our  largest  Par- 


36 

meliffi,  the  isidiophorous  American  states  of  which  differ  so  much 
from  the  smooth  European  lichens,  that,  when  Isidium  was  not  yet 
understood,  they  were  reckoned  distinct  species.  (P.  rudecta,  Ach.  =s 
P.  Borreri,  Tarn.^isidiophora.)  The  formation  of  Isidium  is  not  found 
to  be  common  to  species  otherwise  allied,  nor  to  all  genera  ;  it  is 
wholly  wanting  among  the  inferior,  the  Myco-lichenes,  and  is, 
indeed,  generally  peculiar  to  the  Parmeliaceas  and  Endocarpere, 
in  two  northern  states  of  the  former  of  which,  an  isidio-morphous 
thallus  seems  to  be  normal.  Perfect  apothecia  are  commonly 
wanting  in  strongly  marked  isidioid  states,  but  rudimentary  devel- 
opments or  globules,  often  of  a  brownish  hue,  the  result  of  an 
atypical  metamorphosis  of  gonidia,  occur  frequently  at  the  apices  of 
the  branches.  The  consummate  descriptions  of  Turner  and  Borrer 
(Lichenogr.  Britt.)  afford  the  best  view  of  Isidium,  Variolaria,  Le- 
praria,  and  Spiloma,  that  has  been  given.  It  is,  moreover,  manifest 
that  these  eminent  botanists  anticipated  those  views  of  anamorpho- 
sis now  so  well  understood,  (which  others,  indeed,  had  also,  to  some 
extent,  foreseen,)  and  had  even  received  and  extended  somewhat 
the  rudiments  of  the  true  doctrine  of  the  gonidia.  Among  the 
many  other  forms  of  thalline  anamorphosis,  we  can  in  this  place 
refer  only  to  that  remarkable  and  perplexing  prolification  of  the 
thallus,  the  Lichen  parasiticus  of  E.  Bot.  (Endocarpon  parasiti- 
cum  of  Acharius,  and  well  described  by  Sommerfelt  as  Lecidea 
Parmeliarum).  This  forms  minute,  lobed,  from  cucullate,  explanate 
leaves,  varying  from  bluish  green  to  glaucous,  which  grow  caespi- 
tosely  from  the  original  thallus,  and  are  often  besprinkled  here  and 
there  with  hemispherical  black  cephalodia,  much  like  the  apothe- 
cia of  Lecidia.  It  has  been  found  to  occur  on  several  different  spe- 
cies of  Parmelia  (§  Imbricaria),  in  each  case  participating  more  or 
less  in  the  color  and  nature  of  the  matrix,  and  with  us  is  often  ob- 
servable, with  all  the  above  features,  in  P.  Borreri. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  anamorphoses  of  the  apothecia. 
These  originate  in  a  suppression  of  evolution,  and  have  been  made 
to  characterize  (of  course  while  they  were  not  understood)  not  only 
spurious  genera  of  lichens,  but  even  species  of  fungi.  In  some 
forms  of  Spiloma,  to  be  hereafter  described,  spurious  apothecia  are 
formed  by  a  semi-complete  metamorphosis  of  gonidia.  Besides 
this,  the  principal  abnormal  states  which  we  have  to  notice  are, 

I.  Angiocarpous  states  of  Gymnocarpi,  when,  that  is,  the  normal 
evolution  of  the  apothecia  is  broken  off,  and  we  have  atypically  persis- 
tent the  original  nucleiforra  apothecium  (q.  v.),  which,  by  further  de- 
generation, is  yet  more  altered.  Various  supposed  species  of  Endo- 
carpon, Porina,  and  many  SagedisB  of  Acharius  are  thus  referable  to 
imperfect  states  of  Parmeli8e,while  other  Sagedi«e  and  Pyrenulae  have 
arisen  from  abortive  Lecidese.  It  has  been  already  remarked,  that 
when  apothecia  arise  from  the  cortical  layer,  the  nucleiform,  or  disci- 
form thalamium  is  more  exserted,  and  appears  primarily  without  any 
excipulum ;  if  their  further  evolution  be  impeded,  these  rudimentary 
apothecia  become  blackish,  and  similar  to  the  perithecia  of  Verru- 
caria  or  SphsBria,  to  both  which  tribes  anamorphoses  of  this  kind 
have  been  referred.    And  this  is  almost  universally  the  explanation 


of  the  thallus  nigro-pundahis,  which  can  no  longer  be  made  a  spe- 
cific character.!  In  the  way  above  described,  many  Gymnocarpi 
are  altered  by  anamorphosis,  and  vary  according  to  the  differences 
of  the  genera,  the  fructification  of  which  is  affected. 

II.  Cephalodia.  These  are  monstrous  Parmeliaceous  apothecia, 
wherein  the  thalamium  bursts  forth  alone  without  any  excipulum 
thallodes,  and  is  hence  convex  and  subimmarginate.  They  are 
nearly  akin  to  the  preceding,  as  is  abundantly  evident  in  the  lichen 
parasiticus  already  mentioned,  when  growing  on  Parmelia  saxatilis  ; 
for  here  the  black  Verrucarioid  dots  of  the  latter  are  developed  into 
cephalodia  on  the  former.  Cephalodia  are,  then,  abortive  apothecia 
of  Parmeliese,  personating  the  apothecia  of  Lecidinse.  Where,  as  in 
Usnea,  the  disk  is  normally  much  attenuated,  the  cephalodia  appear 
quite  different;  but  where  the  contrary  is  the  case,  the  cephalodia 
nearly  resemble  the  true  apothecia. 

Another  allied  abnormal  state  of  the  apothecia  is  common  in 
Sticta  pulmonacea;  this  degeneration  is  accounted  for  by  Fries,  by 
the  disk's  originating  below  the  gonimous  layer. 

III.  Arthonia^  that  maculseform,  oftener  difform,  immarginate 
apothecium,  wherein  the  excipulum  and  all  the  included  parts  are 
confused ;  on  which  Acharius  founded  his  genus  of  the  above 
name.  Eschweiler  (Lich.  in  Mart.  Fl.  Bras.  1.  c),  on  the  strength 
of  some  Brazilian  forms,  hesitatingly  restores  the  genus.  Arthoniae 
originate  mostly  from  Opegrapha,  but  also,  says  Fries,  from  the  Ver- 
rucariese,  and  more  rarely  from  the  Lecidinse  and  lowest  Parmeliece. 
This  anamorphosis  depends  upon  station,  and  is  not  known  to  occur 
in  any  but  tree-lichens.  The  apothecia,  nesting  in  the  tender  bark, 
wherein  they  occur,  are  interrupted  in  their  normal  evolution  by  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  matrix,  and  with  the  extension  of  the  epider- 
mis become  dilated,  until  their  interior  parts  are  undistinguishable. 

TV.  Spiloma,  that  anamorphosis  in  which  the  apothecia  are  dis- 
solved originally  into  heaps  of  granules,  resembling  naked  spores. 
From  genuine  lichens  with  a  collapsed  disk,  this  is  further  distin- 
guished by  the  absence  of  any  excipulum.  Spilomata  are  produced 
by  too  acute  vicissitudes  of  climate,  effecting  the  dissolution  of  the 
apothecia.  This  may  be  by  heat,  —  whence  those  Spilomata  peculiar 
to  warm  countries,  and  wholly  deficient  at  the  North.  Or  it  may 
be  by  moisture  and  cold,  when,  sometimes,  being  less  perfectly 
evolved,  they  become  floccose  and  approaching  to  nemata,  when  they 
may  be  called  viviparous  apothecia.  We  see  in  this  a  revergence 
of  the  anamorphosis  of  the  apothecia  to  that  of  the  hypothallus, 
from  which  last  the  degenerate  state  just  described  is  with  difliculty 
distinguishable.  So  in  Umbilicaria  pustulata,  it  is  matter  of  doubt 
whether  the  byssaceous  pulvinules  occurring  on  it  are  to  be  referred 
to  abortive  apothecia,  or  to  prolifications  of  a  degenerate  hypothal- 
line  state  of  the  thallus. 

*  In  the  third  paper  of  the  writer's  Enumeration  of  N.  E.  lichens,  a  distinc- 
tion was  thus  assumed  for  P.  Halseyana  there  proposed,  in  its  possessing  these 
black  apophyses ;  since  Acharius  had  expressly  denoted,  as  a  distinction  of  P. 
centrifusa,  to  which  the  plant  afterwards  proved  to  belong,  that  it  wanted  such 
dots.  They  are  indeed  more  commonly  absent. 
4 


So  long  as  the  effects  of  morphosis  and  anamorphosis  were  not 
clearly  distinguished,  understood,  and  explained,  all  systematical 
efforts  were  vain.  That  which  is  vague  and  indefinite  in  observa- 
tion becomes  fallacious  and  unfaithful  in  construction.  Less  nu- 
merous, perhaps,  certainly  less  various,  than  the  vibrations  of  the 
lower  families,  the  anamorphoses  of  lichens  have  yet  knotted  the 
Ariadnean  thread  of  the  system,  so  that  neither  ingenuity  nor 
thought  alone  can  bring  it  straight.  We  may  briefly  here  consider 
the  primary  grounds  of  the  system  of  lichens.  That  these  are  de- 
pendent on  the  apothecia  has  been  an  opinion  so  generally  enter- 
tained, that  the  contrary  was  scarcely  noticed  by  authors ;  notwith- 
standing which,  this  last  has  much  influenced  lichenists,  and  does 
yet.  But  we  think  there  is  no  longer  any  doubt  that  the  fades  ex- 
terna is  of  little  moment,  and  indicative  of  analogy  only,  and  not 
of  affinity,  whereof  the  former  is  inferior  (Syst.  Mycol.  i.  p.  xv. 
&c.).  Considering  the  matter  morphologically,  we  see  clearly  the 
preeminence  of  the  apothecia  ;  —  as  indicating  true  affinity,  as  of 
themselves  limiting  the  superior  sections,  as  the  organ  of  a  higher 
metamorphosis,  and  especially  as  having  definite  and  limited  se- 
ries of  evolution.  All  which  is  contrary  in  the  thallus,  which  offers 
no  constant  primary  difference  that  is  not  comprehended  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  family  ;  the  morphoses  and  anamorphoses  of  which  are 
never  definite  ;  which  tends  continually  to  new  and  altered  forms; 
and  finally,  since  it  is  continually  in  evolution,  presents  an  absolute 
series  of  variation,  and  in  its  very  last  state  of  dissolution  into  the 
primitive  gctaidia,  germinates  into  a  new  race.  —  Fries, 

Eschweiler  (Fl.  Brasil.  1.  c.)  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  there  is  no 
general  differential  character  to  be  found  in  Lichenes,  and  he  hence 
disposes  the  genera  in  a  series  of  tribes,  without  admitting  higher 
divisions.  He  avails  himself,  in  distinguishing  genera,  of  the  thal- 
lus no  less  than  the  apothecia.  (It  is  unfortunate  that  his  valuable 
observations  are  everywhere  obscured  by  a  style  singularly  involved 
and  inelegant.) 

So  much  for  the  system ;  a  word  now  of  our  study  in  nature. 
Our  object  is  briefly  each  individual  species ;  its  totality ;  its 
morphosis,  metamorphosis,  anamorphosis,  progressive,  regressive, 
and  accidental ;  its  relations,  near  and  remote,  of  afiinity  and  anal- 
ogy; —  in  one  word  its  history  ;  which  one  plant  of  a  species  will 
not  teach  us,  perhaps  not  a  thousand  :  — bearing  ever  in  mind  the 
master's  maxim,  that  however  any  thing  may  subsist  below  it,  noth- 
ing can  ascend  above  its  Idea  ;  — nil  crescere  potest,  quod  plenum  est. 
More  and  more  shall  we  thus  see  that  previous  observers  are  of 
only  secondary  importance,  that,  beyond  every  thing  else,  we  need 
minds  and  eyes  to  search  nature.  What  therefrom  results,  will 
form  itself  indeed  in  words  and  books,  and  force  its  own  way,  de- 
stroying or  building  up ;  and  thus  will  the  silent  understanding  of 
that  nature  which  works  without  words  become  the  organ  of  the 
speech  of  nature  in  necessary  truth  and  universal  law. 

Auct.  de  Anamorphosi  i—tVies,  Lichenogr.  p.  70;  Meyer,  Entwick. 
p.  187,  and  passim ;  fVcUlroth,  Naturgesch.  der  Flechten,  I.  passim; 


Eschweiler^  Lich.  in  Mart.  1.  c;  Koerher^  Diss.  1.  c;  Turner  and 
Borrery  Lichenogr.  Britt.  passim, 

V.    Chrosis. 

The  intimate  connection  of  color  in  lichens,  both  with  the  struc- 
ture of  the  parts,  and  the  progress  of  evolution  of  the  whole  plant, 
was  indicated  by  Eschweiler  (Syst.  p.  6)  in  1824.  Observing  the 
general  occurrence  of  a  black  apothecium  with  a  white  thallus,  and 
of  a  red  apothecium  with  a  green  thallus,  he  inferred  a  chemico- 
polar  secretion  of  coloring  matter,  the  operation  of  which  he  com- 
pared to  the  separation  into  red  and  green  of  the  purple  tincture  of 
Roccella,  and  many  other  lichens,  at  the  poles  of  the  Voltaic  pile. 
Hence  he  further  argued  the  remarkable  distinction  in  this  respect 
of  Lichenes  from  aquatic  Algse  and  Fungi ;  their  nearer  approach 
to  phanerogamous  plants;  and  their  intimate  dependence  on  light. 
Fries  (Lichenogr.  1.  c.)  concludes,  that  the  vital  color  in  lichens  is 
green,  becoming  more  or  less  altered  by  external  moments,  and 
either  normally  or  abnormally;  that  of  the  fructification  red,  re- 
gressively  passing  into  black ;  and  that  white  arises  in  every  series  of 
variation  of  color,  and  is  apparently  never  normal.  JViinium  ne  crede 
colori  sed  crede  colori.  In  the  infinite  variety  of  hues  in  lichens  certain 
primary  types  of  color  can  be  discerned  and  indicated;  and  these 
are  observed  to  characterize,  more  or  less  distinctly,  certain  series 
of  species,  which  vary  within  the  limits  of  their  types.  And  these 
series,  if  distinct,  are  sometimes  so  conspicuous,  that  species  of  the 
most  diff*erent  form,  but  congruous  in  their  normal  color,  seem  to 
possess  more  true  affinity  than  others  agreeing  in  form  but  diflfering 
in  their  normal  color.  The  native  and  primitive  color,  as  in  all 
AleraB  or  Piotophyla,  is  green,  —  (ra  wts^  yns  x^"i^  •xitrm  fvo/itivtuy  TO 
tr^Srov  itrri.  Arist),  —  which  in  the  perfect  lichen  we  find  pure  and 
persistent  only  in  the  gonidium,  or  vital  principle. 

The  Hi/pothallus,  where  this  is  perceptible,  is  either  palish  {hy- 
potk.  alhus),  or  blackish  [hypoth.  niger)]  the  latter  verging  here  and 
there  to  lurid,  bluish,  &;c.  The  color  of  the  Thallus,  of  primary 
importance  in  determining  the  affinity  of  species,  inheres  only  in  the 
cortical  layer,  and  shows  itself  in  four  well  defined  series:  e  \mie 
viridi  glauca,  —  e  flavoviridi  ochrolevca,  —  e  saturate  \ir'u\i  fusca 
1.  olivacea,  —  e  luteoviridi  ciirinn.  But  these  colors  are  variously 
aberrant.  In  the  lower  tribes  the  series  are  not  defined ;  in  those 
with  a  thallus  hypophleeodes  the  color  depends  on  that  of  the  epider- 
mis of  the  matrix,  though  this  itself  is  variously  changed  by  the 
lichen.  Other  mutations  are  dependent  upon  station:  thus,  in  moist 
places  the  normal  color  becomes  greener;  in  those  too  dry  this  ap- 
pears whiter.  White  is  peculiar  to  no  series,  and  either  as  gray,  or 
whitish,  results  manifestly  in  each.  The  cycle  of  variations  of 
each  series  is  best  learned  by  use;  in  genere  glauca  pallide  viridis, 
glaucus,  caerulescens,  stannous,  albus;  fusctR  saturate  viridis,  oliva- 
ceus,  cinereus,  griseo-fuscus,  badius;  ochroleuccB  flavo-virens,  ocbro- 
leufus,  albescens;  citrincB  viridi-luteus,  aurantius,  miniatus. 

The  Thalamium  (possibly  from  the  resinous  principle  ei-ylhrinum 


40 

peculiar  to  lichens^)  is  typically  red,  but  through  impalpable  grada- 
tions, and  with  increasing  induration,  it  passes  into  rufous,  fusces- 
cent,  and  nigrescent;  the  same  species,  and  even  the  same  indi- 
vidual, often  going  through  the  whole  series.  Exceptions,  indeed, 
there  are,  and  so  normal,  that  they  afford  distinctive  characters; 
but  all  are,  notwithstanding,  reducible  without  difficulty  to  the  type. 
The  color  of  the  thallus  without  doubt  tempers  that  of  the  disk,  es- 
pecially if  this  be  extenuate  and  immediately  margined  by  the  thal- 
lus. In  this  way,  and  perhaps  particularly  by  extenuation,  we  have 
the  expallent  disks  of  Usnea  and  Ramalina,  an  effect  produced,  also, 
in  other  species  by  moisture,  as  in  Biatora  vernalis.  Usnese  and 
RamalinBB  do  occur  with  reddish  disks,  which  color  appears  also 
in  the  cephalodia  when  they  are  present  Black  generally  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  genera  that  approach  the  fungi;  red  to  the  central  and 
higher  groups. 

Besides  the  above,  we  have  now  to  add  a  few  words  of  those  wholly 
foreign  colors,  with  which  many  individuals  occur  so  imbued,  that 
the  normal  hue  is  altogether  destroyed.  Meyer  has  treated  this  at 
large  (Entwick.  p.  60,  &c.),  and  Fries  more  briefly,  as  follows.  To  be 
first  mentioned  are  those  accidental  colors  dependent  on  inorganic 
oxides,  the  effects  of  which  have  been  placed  beyond  doubt  both  by 
direct  experiment  and  by  observation.  To  the  oxide  of  iron  are 
referable  all  red  and  ochraceous-ferruginose  crusts,  occurring  so 
commonly  in  our  mountainous  and  alpine  districts ;  to  the  oxide  of 
manganese^  according  to  Meyer,  those  which  are  roseate  and  pur- 
purascent;  and  to  the  carbonate  of  lime  those  chalky- white  crusts 
so  common  on  calcareous  rocks,  wherein,  also,  the  thallus  more  often 
appears  in  an  atypical  amylaceous  state.  Next  we  have  the  colors 
produced  by  parasitical  Byssi,  which  infest  especially  the  corticoline 
lichens,  and  occasion  various  shades  of  red.  Lastly,  lichens  are 
sometimes  tinged  by  the  exuding  sap  of  trees,  and  hence  acquire  a 
rufo-fuscous  hue. 

Auct.  de  Chrosi '.—Fries,  Liciienogr.  p.  1 05 ;  Meyer,  Entwick,  p.  60 ; 
Wallrothy  Naturgesch.  der  Flecht.  II.  pp.  45,417 ;  Eschwciler^ Syst.  1.  c. 

VI.     Chresis. 

Having  thus  explained  the  beginning  of  the  life  of  lichens,  and 
the  progressive  development  of  their  vegetative  and  fructificative 
organs;  having,  moreover,  presented  a  view  of  their  principal  ana- 
morphoses, and  finally  of  their  colors,— we  come  now  to  the  history 
of  these  plants  as  objects  firstly  of  use,  secondly  of  study,  and  lastly 
of  systematic  arrangement. 

Lichenes  are,  of  all  other  cryptogamous  plants,  the  most  remark- 
able for  their  manifold  and  various  uses  in  technology  and  medicine, 
no  less  than  in  the  economy  of  Nature,  and  thence  generally  of  Man. 
In  what  follows  I  have  availed  myself  of  all  the  authorities  within  my 
reach, disposing  the  whole  as  respecting,  t.  the  Economy  of  Nature; 
II.  of  Man,  generally ;  and  III.  particularly,  and  in  the  Arts. 

Of  the  first  of  these  heads  very  little  is  satisfactorily  known. 

1  Gotting.  Gelehrt.  Anzeig.  1830,  No.  141,  Fries,  1.  c.  p.  xxxvi. 

% 


The  long-mooted  question,  whether  lichens  injure  the  trees  on 
which  they  live,  is  not  to  be  answered,  says  Fries,  by  mere  denial. 
He  does  not  consider  it  further,  nor  do  I  know  of  any  thing  of  im- 
portance relating  to  it  beside  a  chapter  in  Hagen's  Hist.Lich.  Pruss. 
J 782 ;  a  few  pages  by  Hoffmann,  178G;  part  of  one  in  Luy ken's  Dis- 
sertation, compiled,  it  would  seem,  from  Hagen;  and  a  brief  paper 
by  F.  V.  Merat,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  French  Agricultural 
Society,  1837.  The  three  first-named  writers  think  that  lichens  do 
not  injure  trees,  and  the  last  that  they  do  ;  but  altogether  they  have 
contributed  very  little  to  our  knowledge  in  the  matter.  Hagen 
considers  the  whole  thing  an  aspersion  upon  lichens,  and  defends 
them  most  laboriously.  Mr.  Merat,  on  the  other  hand,  is  persuaded 
that  lichens  are  mischievous  plants,  and  after  showing  them  up  to 
the  best  of  his  ability,  he  gravely  gives  us  recipes  for  their  extirpa- 
tion. On  the  whole  it  does  not  seem  at  all  safe  to  deny  the  destruc- 
tive power  of  these  plants  generally  on  the  trunks  (and  dead  wood) 
which  so  many  species  naturally  and  normally  inhal)it.  And  some 
years  since  (Lich.  N.  Eng.,  in  Bost.  Jour.  1841,  p.  458)  I  ventured  to 
express  this  opinion  without  qualification,  and  to  suggest  the  proba- 
bility of  a  law  determining  their  action  in  this  respect  in  nature. 
Soils  and  other  circumstances  affecting  the  health  of  trees  are  so 
various  and  uncertain,  that  in  the  midst  of  what  seems  to  indicate 
power  of  indefinite  duration,  we  find  constantly  symptoms  of  disease 
and  decay.  Unhealthy  young  trees  do  not  long  survive  after  their 
epidermis  is  well  covered  with  lichens,  and  in  this  stage  it  seems  to 
me  quite  futile  to  remove  the  latter.  But  in  older  trunks  the  con- 
nection of  these  plants  with  any  morbid  condition  of  the  tree  is  of\en 
very  obscure,  as  indeed  we  might  expect  it  to  be.  It  is  possible 
that  an  unhealthy  state  of  the  trunk,  whether  from  soil  or  other  cir- 
cumstances, affords  certain  favorable  conditions  for  the  life  and 
growth  of  the  lichens  which  occupy  it,  and  accelerate  its  death  :  or 
it  may  be  that  the  lichens  of  themselves  induce  disease  and  accom- 
plish dissolution ;  more  quickly  and  visibly  in  a  young  tree,  and  more 
slowly  and  obscurely  in  an  old.  However  it  be,  we  assert  generally, 
again,  a  probable  connection  between  the  life  and  growth  of  liche- 
nose  vegetation  on  trees,  and  the  death  of  the  latter;  and  infer 
thence  the  probability  of  a  law  determining  in  this  way  the  action 
of  lichens  on  living  vegetable  matter.  The  universality  and  fre- 
quency of  lichens  wherever  are  earth,  and  air,  and  light,  and  time 
is  given,  and  their  singular  power  of  assimilating  the  substance  of 
the  matrix  (in  corticoline  species  the  very  epidermis  of  the  tree 
fills  often  the  place  of  a  lichenose  cortical  layer;  and  on  calcareous 
rocks  we  find  the  crustaceous  thallus  and  the  calcareous  matrix 
together  grown  into  a  subcalcareous  mass)  must  not  be  forgotten. 
And  this  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  the  action  of  lichens  on 
inorganic  natural  bodies,  and  their  precedence  of  vegetation  as 
Protophytes,  whereby  they  afford,  also,  the  first  beginnings  of 
humus  for  after  successions  of  higher  and  higher  vegetable  devel- 
opment With  regard  to  the  first  clause  of  the  last  sentence,  I  am 
unprepared  to  add  any  thing  to  the  mere  indication  of  the  question, 
further  than  that  these  plants  seem  sometimes  to  aid  in  the  disinte- 
4* 


1^2 

gration  of  rocks,  but  whether  only  mechanically,  or  chemically,  or 
both,  is  as  yet  matter  of  inquiry.  But  Linnseus,  (Amasn.  Acad.  II. 
p.  25,)  and  numberless  writers  after  him,  have  beautifully  displayed 
the  rise  and  the  progressive  development  of  vegetation,  from  the 
protophyte,  the  crustaceous  lichen  on  the  dry  top  of  the  rock  just 
emerging  from  the  sea,  to  higher  lichens,  to  mosses,  to  herbs,  and 
stately  trees. 

We  come  now  to  the  second  part  of  this  chapter,  which  concerns 
Lichenes  as  they  respect  the  economy  of  Man  generally.  They 
afford  protection  to  tender  alpine  plants  without  doubt.  They  are 
not  only  a  refuge  for  insects,  but  serve  also  for  the  construction  of 
the  nests  of  certain  kinds,  as  also  of  birds.  But  above  all  are  they 
important,  as  furnishing  food  to  the  higher  animals,  in  circumstan- 
ces where  these  animals  would  perish  without  the  lichens  upon 
which,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  they  subsist.  In  this  way 
certain  species  are  essential  to  the  very  existence  of  Lapland  as  an 
inhabited  region.  "Hi  Lichene  obsiti  campi  sunt  Lapponum  agri, 
hfiBc  prata  eorum  fertilissima."  (Fl.  Lapp.)  Nor  is  it  reindeer 
alone  which  are  sustained  by  lichens ;  other  deer,  and  horses,  swine, 
oxen,  calves,  and  sheep  not  only  will  live,  but  grow  fat  upon  them, 
so  that  in  Carniolia  they  fatten  lean  cattle  by  pasturing  them  where 
nothing  but  Cetraria  Islandica  (Iceland  Moss)  grows.  Finally, 
lichens  serve  as  food  to  the  wandering  savage  tribes  of  boreal 
America,  and  in  frequent  circumstances  the  Rock-tripe  (Umbilica- 
ria)  may  be  said  to  be  essential  to  their  existence.  "Next  morn- 
ing," says  Franklin,  in  his  thrilling  "Journey  to  the  Shores  of  the 
Polar  Sea,"  "the  breeze  was  light,  and  the  weather  mild,  which 
enabled  us  to  collect  some  tripe  de  roche^  and  to  enjoy  the  only  meal 
we  had  for  four  days.  We  derived  great  benefit  from  it,  and  walked 
with  considerably  more  ease  than  yesterday.  Without  the  strength 
it  supplied,  we  should  certainly  have  been  unable  to  oppose  the 
strong  breeze  we  had  in  the  afternoon."  (P.  437,  and  see  pp.  404, 
436,  &c.).  According  to  Franklin,  Muhlenberg's  Rock-tripe  (Um- 
bil.  Muhlenbergii),  so  common  on  the  Blue  Hills,  the  Lynn  hills,  &c., 
is  the  species  preferred  by  the  Indians,  and  he  calls  it,  "with  fish- 
roe  or  other  animal  matter,  agreeable  and  nutritious." 

There  remains  only  to  mention  the  universally  known  Iceland 
Moss  (Cetraria  Islandica)  of  which  Proust  has  said,  that  "Nature 
can  hardly  furnish  a  more  excellent  article  of  food."  This  affords 
to  the  Icelanders  both  soup  and  bread,  and,  with  Cetraria  nivalis,  is 
considered  "wholesome,  nourishing,  and  extremely  agreeable." 
Indeed,  Olafsen  says,  that  they  reckon  a  ton  of  the  flour  of  the 
Iceland  Moss  to  be  equal  to  half  a  ton  of  ordinary  flour  or  meal. 
I  pass  over  other  species  which  might  here  be  referred  to,  and 
proceed  to  consider,  lastly,  the  uses  of  Lichenes  in  the  Arts.  And 
here,  well  remarks  Fries,  almost  all  that  is  known  has  been  owing 
to  the  Northern  —  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Scandinavian,  and  German 
nations,  whom  necessity  constrained  to  value  and  to  improve  all  of 
Nature's  gifts.  Throughout  the  North,  lichens  have  been  used  as 
dye-stuff's  from  remote  antiquity,  and  are  still,  to  a  great  extent. 
Swedish  writers  have  illustrated  at  large  the  whole  matter,  and  es- 


43 

pecially  Westrin^  in  his  Svenska  Lafvarnas  Farghistoria,  Stockh. 
J 805,  the  classical  work.  Many  lichens,  among  which  the  Archil, 
Parelle,  and  Cudbear,  are  most  distinguished,  abound  in  coloring 
matter  of  equal  elegance  and  tenacity,  —  and  those  mentioned  are 
articles  of  commerce.  Westring  distinguishes  between  those 
lichens  which  impart  color  to  pure  water,  which  he  calls  essential 
pigments,  and  those  which  require  a  peculiar  treatment  to  yield 
color  —  preparable  pigments.  A  single  species,  with  different  treat- 
ment, affords  very  different  colors,  which  he  exhibits  in  every  case. 
He  considers  that  the  colors  afforded  by  lichens  are  remarkably 
efficacious  in  staining  marble  durably.  There  is  no  brief  view  of 
the  uses  of  lichens  as  dye-stuffs  so  comprehensive  as  that  given  by 
Mr.  Neil  in  his  admirable  article  in  the  Edinburgh  EncyclopsBdia. 
Coloring  matter  may  be  said,  says  Fries,  to  exist  in  all  lichens,  but 
it  abounds  especially  in  the  crustacecus,  the  tartareous,  and  coria- 
ceous kinds,  and  is  almost  deficient  in  those  which  are  more  deli- 
cate, or  subgelatinous.  And  it  is  most  remarkable,  that  not  only 
the  quantity,  but  the  kind  of  color,  differs  in  different  states  of  evo- 
lution of  species.  Isidioid  forms,  he  adds,  are  most  rich  in  color; 
next  to  them  are  the  Variolarioid ;  and  the  powdery,  gonimous,  and 
hypothalline  states  are  the  poorest.  The  color  seems  to  depend  on 
the  resinous  principle  Erythrinum,  already  referred  to,  said  to  be 
peculiar  to  lichens.  This  affords  red,  purple,  and  brown  hues, 
which  differ  very  much,  according  to  the  treatment.  The  mucilage 
of  lichens  was  proposed  by  Lord  Dundonald  to  be  applied  to  thick- 
ening the  mordants,  and  fixing  the  colors  in  calico-printing.  From 
Umbilicaria  pustulata  excellent  Chinese  ink  has  been  made.  Paper 
has  been  made  from  the  gray  foliaceous  Parmeliae.  A  gum  as  trans- 
parent as  gum  arable  was  obtained  by  Georgi  and  by  Amoreux,  by 
evaporation  of  the  mucilage  of  Parmelia,  Peltigera,  and  Rama- 
lina.  In  Siberia,  the  Lungwort  lichen  (Sticta  pulmonaria)  is  a 
common  substitute  for  hops,  in  the  making  of  ale ;  and  is  also  reck- 
oned edible  by  Georgi,  yielding  "  a  yellow,  nearly  insipid  muci- 
lage," which  may  be  eaten  with  salt.  And  this  species,  and  many 
others,  from  the  tannin  which  they  contain,  are  employed  in  some 
countries  for  tanning  leather.  Many  cruslaceous  lichens  contain 
oxalic  acid  in  greater  or  less  abundance ;  and  according  to  M. 
Braconnot,  this  occurs  in  the  bitter  Variolaria  (Pertusaria  pertusa, 
fi.  sorediata,  c.  orbiculata,  Fr.)  in  such  quantity  that  100  parts  yield- 
ed ]8  of  lime,  combined  with  29.4  of  oxalic  acid  ;  and  the  lichen  is 
now  employed  in  France  in  the  manufacture  of  the  acid  on  a  very 
extensive  scale. 

In  medicine,  the  uses  of  lichens  were  formerly  so  much  thought 
of,  that  there  was  scarcely  a  disease  for  which  some  lichen  or  other 
was  not  regarded  specific.  Those  etill  received  are  reckoned  as- 
tringent, febrifugal,  and  stomachic  ;  and  more  rarely  they  seem  to 
be  purgative  and  anthelmintic.  Parmelia  parietina  was  some  years 
since  declared  to  be  a  sufficient  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark,  an 
opinion  which  gained  same  credit  in  Europe,  and  even  now,  I  was 
assured  by  a  competent  person,  is  not  wholly  given  up.  That  many 
lichens  may  be  useful  as  febrifuges  is  hardly  doubtful,  and  their 


44 

active  properties  are  no  doubt  to  be  found  in  the  bitter  principle, 
which  is  combined  with  that  nutritive  and  restorative  amylaceous 
gluten  with  which  they  abound.  A  long  list  of  medicinal  "Zrt- 
chenes,  quorum  usus  obsoletus  est "  may  be  found  in  Luyken  and  his 
authorities.  With  the  exception  of  what  is  above  admitted,  it  is 
probable  that  Spielmann  (Inst.  Mat.  Med.,  p.  388)  is  correct  in 
saying  that  we  know  nothing  with  certainty  of  the  particular 
uses  of  lichens  in  medicine.  The  symbolical  or  physiognomistic 
contemplation  of  nature — which  Porta  reduced  to  a  system,  and  by 
which  it  was  proposed  to  discover  the  virtues  of  plants  through  a 
sort  of  homeopathy^  so  to  speak,  of  nature  itself —  extended  to 
lichens  also,  and  hence,  says  Fries,  the  reputed  (which  are,  perhaps, 
not  yet  quite  obsolete)  virtues  of  Peltigera  aphthosa,  on  account  of  its 
soredia,  to  cure  the  thrush  (aphthae);  those  of  Usnea  to  strengthen 
the  hair,  and  cure  diseases  of  it;  and  those  of  Sticta pulmonaria  in 
lung-complaints.  And  the  Paracelsian  school  brought  up  at  last  that 
^'■muscus  cranii  humanij'^  which  was  so  long  a  sort  of  philosopher's 
stone  among  the  adepts,  no  two  of  whom  could  agree  upon  what  it 
was,  or  whether  any  body  had  got  it ;  beyond  which,  in  this  regres- 
sive series  of  our  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  lichens,  we  cannot  go. 
Auct.  de  Chresi :— Fries,  Lichenogr.  p.  cxi. ;  L.  Fl.  Lapp.  &c.  1.  c. ; 
Hagen,  Hist.  Lich.  Pruss.  Regiom.  J  782,  p.  20,  &c. ;  Hoffmann,  de 
vario  lich.  usu,  Erlang.  1786;  fVestring,  Svenska  Lafvarnas  Far- 
ghistoria,  Stockh.  1805 ;  Luyken,  Hist.  Lich.  in  genere,  Gotting. 
1809,  p.  22;  JVeil,  Art.  "Lichen"  in  Edinb.  Encyc.  1.  c;  Hooker, 
Tour  in  Iceland,  Lond.  1813,  I.  p.  130;  Id.  Br.  Fl.  IL  passim-, 
Franklin,  Narrative  of  a  Journey,  Lond.  1823, 1.  c. 

VII.    LiCHENOLOGI. 

The  name  Lichen  (x«/;^>j»)  was  applied  originally  by  Dioscorides 
(lib.  iv.  cap.  53.),  and  after  him  by  Pliny  (lib.  xxvi.  cap.  3),  to  certain 
species  of  this  order,  on  account  of  their  resemblance  to  the  cuta- 
neous disease,  so  called,  whence,  also,  they  were  supposed  to  be 
specifics  for  it.  It  was  very  long  before  these  plants  became  ob- 
jects of  scientific  study.  Morrison  and  Ray  reviewed  all  the  cryp- 
togamic  tribes,  and  not  in  vain  ;  but  they  left  them  still  confused. 
It  was  TouRNEFORT  (1719)  who  first  more  accurately  limited  the 
class,  and  assigned  to  it,  as  a  distinct  division  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, the  name  it  bears.  MicHELi  (1729)  followed,  disposing  the 
species  in  admirable  sections,  and  analyzing  the  fructification,  which 
he  further  illustrated  by  many  good  figures.  These  are  the  found- 
ers of  our  science,  and  from  their  contemplative  studies  we  come  to 
its  second  epoch  (the  descriptive)  in  Dillenius  (1740).  This  great 
cryptogamist  devoted  himself  wholly  to  the  limitation,  description, 
and  delineation  of  the  species,  and  his  Historia  Muscorum  is  clas- 
sical. A  new  sun  of  Botany  arose  now  in  the  North,  whose  rays 
reached  also  the  Lichenes.  Linn^us,  with  his  native  genius,  con- 
joined the  ideas  of  Micheli  with  the  science  of  Dillenius,  and  from 
him  once  more  the  study  started  anew.  Among  the  more  distin- 
guished of  those  who  continued  to  illustrate  the  Lichenes,  were 
Haller,  Scopoli,  Hudson,    Necker,   Weiss,    Schreber,   Lightfoot, 


45 

Weber,  Hagen,  Ehrhart,  Dickson,  Villars,  Swartz,  Smith,  and 
Wiilfen.  And  thus  we  arrive  at  the  third  epoch  of  disposition. 
The  need  of  more  genera  was  generally  felt,  and  a  more  accurate 
analysis  of  the  fructification  which  Hedwig  began  first  to  insti- 
tute, proved  their  naturalness.  Hill  (1751)  had,  indeed,  already,  and 
Adanson  (1763)  attempted  the  distinction  of  some  few  genera,  but 
of  much  higher  import  were  the  labors  of  Weber  (1778),  Willdenow, 
and  Humboldt,  to  this  end.  Hoffmann  (1784)  attempted  a  complete 
reformation  of  the  order,  in  several  elegant  but  not  thoroughly  sci- 
entific works,  wherein  he  indicated  incompletely  some  important 
parts  of  our  present  system,  and  illustrated  the  species  with  figures. 
Schreber,  also,  about  this  time  attempted  a  distribution  of  lichens 
in  sixteen  subgenera.  But  Persoon  and  Schrader  are  the 
founders  of  our  present  views  of  the  science  generally,  —  the  first 
establishing  important  genera,  and  the  second  proposing  general 
principles  of  disposition  from  the  fructification,  which  have  now 
revived.  Acharius  and  Floerke  followed,  —  the  first  devoted  to 
the  description  and  arrangement  of  species,  the  last  to  their  careful 
study  in  nature.  Wahlenberg  elegantly  described  and  disposed 
the  hchens  of  Lapland,  avoiding  many  of  the  common  errors  of  the 
time.  Turner  observed  carefully  the  British  species,  and,  with 
BoRRER,  illustrated  all  the  more  difiicult  genera,  in  descriptions 
which  have  not  been  surpassed.  Luyken  collected  with  assiduity  a 
view  of  all  that  was  known  generally  of  the  science.  Decandolle 
proposed  a  new  but  not  altogether  successful  disposition.  Ramond, 
Dufour,  Sommerfelt,  Delise,  Fee,  greatly  increased  the  number  of 
species.  At  length  the  observations  of  Fries  and  Scheerer,  and  the 
analyses  of  Eschweiler  brought  in  that  reformation  of  the  system 
which  Wallroth  and  Meyer  accomplished.  The  whole  has 
finally  been  comprehended,  and,  both  in  generals  and  particulars, 
systematically  disposed  in  the  consummate  work  of  Fries. 

Auct.  de  Lichenologis:  —  Fries,  Lichenogr.  p.  115;  Luyken,  Diss. 
1.  c. 

VIII.    Aphorismi. 

1.  Species  unica  in  naturafixe  circumscripta  idea.   Fr.  Syst.  Myc. 

2.  Constat  omne  plantarum  genus  (et  species)  habere  quod  sit 
cujusque  suum;  quod  quid  sit,  nisi  continua  contemplatione  rimeris 
et  extrices,  nunquam  adsequeris.     Koch.  Sal. 

3.  Tantum  e  re  variis  rationibus  considerata  plena  nascitur  cog- 
nitis.  Verum  et  pulchrum  sub  variis  formis  manifestatur.  Qui  se 
unicum  et  summum  justum  in  generalibus  plene  amplexum  esse 
fingit,  se  et  alios  fallit.     Fr. 

4.  Externa  facies  inter  Lichenes  fallacissima  est.     Fr. 

5.  Aflania  non  identica,  et  equidem  lubentius  distinguo  simillima, 
in  natura  diversam  evolutionis  seriem  servantia,  quam  dissimillia, 
sed  ex  eadem  evolutionis  serie  facile  confluentia.  Ingenue  fateor 
Lichenum  formas,  ut  externa  facie  maxime  difierant,  ita  maxime 
mihi  esse  suspectas.     Fr. 

6.  Praecipue  cavendum  ne  ex  apparentibus  approximationibus 
speciminum  atypicorum  diversa  confundamus.  Ad  transitus  de- 
monstrandos  seligi  possunt  specimina  omnium  Cladoniarum,  Biato- 


46 

rarum,  &c.,  tam  sibi  invicem  ut  apparet  appropinquantia,  ut,  qui 
singulam  in  naiura  baud  persecutus  sit,  omnia  confluere  paratus  sit 
jurare.    Fr. 

7.  Si  rite  excipere  velis  diversorum  auctorum  judicia  de  singulis 
speciebus,  attendere  debes  ad  diversum  eorurn  genium;  utrum 
species  ad  historiam  (quod  nobis  primarium)  an  e  characteribus 
distinguant;  utrum  ad  transitus  directos  lantum  an  indirectos  sive 
obliteratione  ortos  simul  contrahant ;  utrum  ad  typos  prsecipuc,  an 
abnormes  status  asque,  attendant.     Fr.  Mant.  II. 

IX.      SrSTEMA. 

We  may  proceed  in  the  disposition  of  plants  in  two  ways,  either 
of  which  may  be  natural  or  artificial,  according  as  we  distinguish  or 
confound  affinity  and  analogy,  or  affinity  and  systematic  character. 
If  we  merely  collect  things  like  and  related,  and,  variously  circum- 
scribing the  sections,  neglect  any  common  principle  of  disposition, 
we  have  a,Methodus.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  such  common  principle 
be  proposed,  and  the  whole  thereto  conformed,  arises  the  Systema. 
Examples  are  readily  turned  to:  —  of  the  first,  in  Eschweiler's  Dis- 
position, admitting  nothing  higher  than  Tribes,  under  which  the 
genera  are  brought  together ;  and  of  the  second,  in  the  System  to 
be  now  set  forth.  Of  the  exclusive  value  of  either  way  it  is  unim- 
portant to  speak ;  the  Method  should  be  the  foundation  of  the  Sys- 
tem, and  the  System  the  scope  of  the  Method.  Among  the  earlier 
illustrators  of  the  Lichenes,  the  thallus  was  primarily  regarded  ; 
from  this  proceed  the  arrangements  of  Dillenius  and  Linnaeus ; 
and  in  later  times,  of  Acharius  (in  his  Prodromus),  Agardh,  Delise; 
and  with  some  reference  to  the  fructification,  of  Hoffinann,  Decan- 
dolle,  Eschweiler  (in  his  Systema),  and  Fee.  We  find,  next,  the 
excipulum  taken  as  primary,  —  by  Wahlenberg,  and  by  Acharius  (in 
his  later  works).  Lastly,  the  thalamium  was  assumed  as  primary 
(as  first  by  Micheli,  says  Fries);  which  is  the  principle  of  the  ar- 
rangements of  Persoon,  Schrader,  Luyken,  Fries,  and  Meyer.  The 
instructive  view  of  the  thalline  or  F^ean  system,  wherein  Lichenes 
are  regarded  as  either  Myco-lichenes  or  Phyco-lichenes ;  and  of 
that  of  Acharius,  proceeding  from  the  excipulum,  and  distinguish- 
ing them  into  Ccenothalami  (exc.  proprium),  and  Idiothalami  (exc. 
thallodes),  which  Fries  has  given,  and  which,  as  he  presents  it,  is  full 
of  new  light  on  the  whole  order,  should  be  here  referred  to.  We 
proceed  now  to  a  view  of  the  Friesian  System  in  detail,  as  it  is  pre- 
sented in  the  Lichenographia  Europea  Reformata,  with  constant 
reference,  however,  to  the  latest  expression  of  it  in  the  Flora  Sca- 
nica,  and  with  some  few  other  modifications  which  I  have  myself 
been  led  to  prefer.  The  principles  of  the  Disposition  were  pro- 
posed by  Schrader  and  Luyken,  as  above  said,  and  from  these  the 
earlier  disposition  of  Fries,  that  of  Meyer,  and  the  present,  have 
proceeded.  As  possibly  adding  somewhat  to  the  value  of  what  fol- 
lows, I  give,  also,  in  their  places,  a  list  of  such  New  England,  and 
other  American  species,  as  I  am  sufficiently  acquainted  with ;  pre- 
mising, however,  that  it  is  incomplete,  that  but  little  time  has  been 
given  to  it,  and  that  it  is  intended  only  for  practical  convenience. 


47 

Clavis  Dispositignis  Friesian^. 

Ord.  1.  GYMNOCARPI,  Schrad. 

Char.  Apothecia  aperta,  disci/era. 

Trib.  I.    PARMELIACE^,  Fr.    Discus  subrotundus,  persistens, 

ab  excipulo  thallode  marginatus. 
A.  UsneacecRj  Eschw.     Discus   apertus.     Thallus  subverticalis 

[aut  pendido-sarmentosus\  centripdus,  hypothallo  destitutus. 

I.  Usnea,  Dill.  Hoffin.    Apothecia  orbiculata,  peltata;  discus  aper- 

tus, strato   medullari   filamentoso  impositus.  —  Stratum  ihalli 
corlicale  a  medullari  filamentoso  secedens. 

1.  ahrbata,  (L.)  Fr. 

«.  florida,  Fr.  (U.  florida,  Ach.) 
/?.  hirta,  Fr.  (U.  hirta,  Ach.) 
y.  piicata,  Fr.  (U.  plicata,  Ach.) 
1  dasypoga,  Fr.  (U.  barbata,  Ach.) 

2.  longissima,  Ach. 

3.  homalea,  Tuckerm.  MS.  (Ramalina,  Ach.) 

II.  EvERNiA,  Fr.     Apoth.  orbiculata,  scutelliformia;  discus  apertus, 

strato  medullari  floccoso  impositus,  color atu^.— Thallus  stuppeus, 
fistulosus  aut  strato  medullari fioccoso  contiguo  farctus. 
§  1.  Cornicularia,  Dec.  fructiculossB  (aut sarmentosse)  apoth. 
lateralibus. 

1.  juftafa,  (L.)  Fr. 

«.  bicolor,  Fr.  (Cornicularia,  Ach.) 

/3.  chalybeiformis,  Ach.  (Alectoria,  Ach.) 

y.  implexa,  Fr.  (Alect.  Ach.) 

2.  divergens,  (Ach.)  Fr. 

3.  ochroleuca,  (Ehrh.)  Fr. 

a.  rigida,  Fr.  (Cornicularia,  Ach.) 
y.  sarmentosa,  Fr.  (Alectoria,  Ach.) 

4.  vulpina^{WuK)  Ach. 

§  2.  Dufourea^  Ach.  fruticulosa,  inflata,  apoth.  terminalibus. 
§  3.  Physcia,  Dec.foliaceo-compressa,  (filamentosa  semper  ste- 
rilis)  subtus  canaliculata. 

5.  prunastrif  (L.)  Ach. 

6.  furfuracea,  (L.)  Mann.  (Borrera,  Ach.) 

III.  Ramalina,  Ach.  Apoth.  orbiculata,  scutelliformia ;  discus  strato 
gonimo  (viridi)  impositus  subconcolor.  Thallus  subcartilagine- 
us,  undique  fcrtilis  et  similaris, 

1.  calicarisj  (L.)  Fr. 

«.  fraxinea,  Fr.  (R.  fraxinea,  Ach.) 

/3.  fastigiata,  Fr.  (R.  fastigiata,  Ach.) 

y.  canaliculata,  Fr.  (R.  fastigiata,  van  Ach.) 

X  farinacea.  Tuck.  (R.  farinacea,  Ach.) 

2.  polymorpha,  Ach. 

IV.  RoccELLA,  (Bauh.)  Decand.  Apoth.  orbiculata,  scutelliformia; 
discus  strato  carbonaceo  impositus,  ater  pruinosus,  Thallus 
eartilagineO'Coriaceus, 


48 

V.  Cetraria,  Ach.  Fries.    Apoth.  oblique  marginata,  peltseformia, 
nuda.     Thallus  adscendens,  suhlus  glaber. 
§1.  C art ila gin  e  (B^Fr.  suherectsB. 

1.  aculeaiaf  (Ehrh.)  Fr.  (Comicularia,  Ach.) 

2.  Islandica^  (L.)  Ach.  «. 
y.  crispa,  Ach. 

3.  Richardsoniij  Hook. 

4.  cucuUata^  (Bellard.)  Ach. 

5.  nivalis,  (L.)  Ach. 

§  2.  MembranacecRjFr,    Depressse,  adscendentes. 

6.  glauca,  (L.)  Ach. 

7.  lacunosa,  Ach. 

8.  Tuckermaniij  Oakes. 

9.  ciliaris,  Ach. 

10.  sepincola,  (Ehrh.)  Ach. 

11.  Oakesiana,  Tuckerm. 
VZ.  junipenna,  (L.)  Ach. 

13.  pinastriy  (Scop.)  Sommerf. 
B.  ParmeliecR,   Eschw.    Discus  clausus,  dein  discoideo-apertus. 

Thallus  horizontalis,  centrifugus,  hypolhallo  inslructus. 
VL  SoLORiNA,  Ach.    Apoth.  subrotunda,  laminse  thalli  adnata,  ma-     | 

culasformia,  velata.     Thallus  coriaceo-membranaceus. 

1.  crocea,  (L.)  Ach. 

2.  saccata,  (L.)  Ach. 

VII.  Peltigera,  Hoffm.  Apoth.  antice  thalli  lobis  producta,  raro 
margini  adnata.  Thallus  coriaceo'membranaceu^,  svbius  venosus. 

1.  malacea,  Ach. 

2.  aphthosa,  (L.)  Hoffm. 

3.  canina,  (L.)  Hoffjn. 

4.  rufescens,  (Neck.)  Hoffm. 

5.  polydaciyla,  (Neck.)  Hoffm. 
^.  scutata,  Fr. 

6.  horizonialiSf  (L.)  Hoffm. 

7.  venosa,  (L.)  Hoffm.  I 

VIII.  Nephroma,  Ach.    Apoth.  postica,  thalli  lobis  adnata,  reni-     ' 
formia.    Velum  nullum.     Thallus  subius  avenius. 

1.  arctica,  (L.)  *  (N.  polaris,  Ach.) 

2.  resupinata,  (L.)  Ach. 

3.  pariliSf  Ach. 

4.  Helvetica,  Ach.  (N.  aspera,  Tuckerm.) 

IX.  Sticta,  Schreb.  Ach.  Apoth.  nuclei  instar  infra  stratum  goni- 
mon  oriunda,  dein  prorumpentia  disciformia,  nuda,  excipulo 
thallode  subdiscolori.  Thallus  frondosus,  coriaceus,  subtus  vil- 
losus,  avenius,  sapius  cum  cyphellis, 

1.  aurala,  (Sm.)  Ach. 

2.  crocata,  (L.)  Ach. 

3.  sylvatica,  (L.)  Ach. 

4.  anthraspis,  Ach. 

5.  quercizans,  (Michx.)  Ach.  I 

6.  fuliginosa,  (Dicks.)  Ach. 


49 

7.  limhata,  (Sm.)  Ach. 

8.  scrobiculaia,  (Scop.)  Ach. 

9.  pulmonaria,  (L.)  Ach. 

10.  glomerulifera,  (Lightf.)  Delis. 

11.  herbacea,  (Huds  )  Delis. 

X.  P  ARM  ELI  A,  Ach.  Fries.  Apoth.  scutelliformia,  primitus  clausa, 
margine  thallo  concolori.  Stratum  carbonaceum  sub  disco  nul- 
lum. Thallus  foliaceus  aut  crustaceus^  siiUus  discolor  L  adnatuSj 
absque  veiiis  el  cyphellis 

Sect.  I.  Hypothallus  thallo  foliaceo  discreto  adnatus. 

Sub-sect.  I.  Imbricaria,  Fr.  Discus  membranaceus,  nudus,  strato 
gonimo  impositus.    Thallus  foliaceus,  membranaceus,  imbricatus, 

Ser.  I.    Glances centes. 

1.  perforata,  (Jacq.)  Ach. 

2.  criniia,  Ach.  (P.  perforata,  /S.  Fr.) 

3.  perlata,  (L.)  Ach. 

4.  tiliacea,  (Ehrh.)  Fr. 

5.  scnrtea,  Ach. 

6.  Borreri,  Turn. «. 

/3.  rudecta,  Tuck.  (P.  rudecta,  Ach.) 

7.  saxatilis,  {h.)  Ach. 

8.  placorodia,  Ach. 

9.  aleurites,  Ach. 

10.  colpodes,  Ach. 

11.  terebrata,  (Hoffm.)  Mart.  (P.  diatrypa,  Ach.) 

12.  physodes,  (HofFm.)  Ach. 

13.  enleromorpha,  Ach, 

Ser.  II.    OlivaceO'fuscce, 

14.  olivacea,  (L.)  Ach. 

15.  Fahlunensis,  (L.)  Ach. 

16.  stygia,  (L.)  Ach.  a. 
fi.  lanata,  Fr. 

Ser.  III.    Ochroleucix , 

17.  caperata,  (L.)  Ach. 

18.  conspersa,  (Ehrh.)  Ach. 

19.  incurva,  (Pers.)  Fr. 

20.  ambigua,  (Wulf.)  Ach. 

21.  centrifuga,  (L.)  Ach. 
Ser.  IV.  Citrina, 

22.  parietina,  (L.)  Fr. 
a.  foliacea,  (Fr.) 
/3.  laciniosa,  Duf. 
y  polycarpa,  Fr. 
^  lobulata,  Fr. 

».  subcrustacea,  (Fr.) 
Z-  Crustacea,  (Fr.) 
n    citrinella,  Fr. 

23.  chrysophthalma,  (L.)  Ach. 

24.  Columbiana,  Tuck.  Ms.  (Borrera,  Nutt.) 

Sub-sect  II.  Physcia,  Fr.    Discus  ceraceus,  subpruinato-velatusr 
5 


50 

strato  medullari  impositus.    Thallus  foliaceuSf  stellatus,  adscen- 
dens. 

25.  erinacea^  (Ach.)  Fr.  (Borrera,  Ach.) 

26.  leucomda,  (L.)  Ach. 

27.  ciliaris,  ( L.)  Ach. 

28.  detonsa,  Fr.     (P.  Novsb  Anglise,  Tuck,  olim.) 

29.  pulvendenia^  (Schreb.)  Wallr.    (P.  venusta,  Ach.) 

30.  hypoleuca,  Muhl. 

31.  spedosa,  (Wulf.)  Ach. 

32.  aslroidea^  (Clement)  Fr. 
«    sideralis,  (Fr.) 

/3    Clementiana,  (Fr.) 

33.  stellaris,  (L.)  Wallr. 

a.  stellari-expansa,  (Fr.)  (P.  stellaris  &  aipolia,  Ach.) 
/3.  hispida,  Fr.  (Borrera  tenella,  Ach.) 
y.  tribracia,  (Fr.)    (Lecanora,  Ach.) 

34.  ccBsia,  (Hoffm.)  Ach.  a. 
/3   tenella,  Fr. 

•y   squamulosa,(Fr.) 

35.  obscura,  (Ehrh.)  Fr.  «.  (P.  cycloselis,  Ach.) 
/3.  ulothrix,  Fr.  (P.  ulothrix,  Ach.) 

Sfxt.  II.  Thallus  foliaceus  membranaceus^dein  granuloso-conglo- 
baius.     Hypothallusjibnllosus  mairici  adnntus. 

Sub-sect.  III.  Amphiloma,  Fr.  Excip.  thallodes  accessorium. 
Tliallus  platyphyllinus,  submonophylliis.  Hypothallus  spongioso- 
pannosus. 

36.  Russelliiy  Tuckerin.  Ms.*  (P.  plumbea,  Auct.  Amer.  quo- 
rund.) 

37.  lanuginosa,  Ach.  a. 

/3.  granuloso-pulverulenta,  (Fr.) 
*  leproso-byssina.     (Lepraria  incana,  Auct  qu.) 
Sub-sect  IV.    PsoROMA,  Fr.    Apoth.  biformia:  e  squamulis  orta 
margine   thallode ;  ex   hypothallo  margine  proprio.      Thallus 
minute  squamulosus. 

38.  microphylla,  (Sw.)  Ach. 

39.  triptophylla,  Fr.  (L.  brunnea,  Auct  pi.) 

40.  Hypnorum,  (E.  Bot)  Fr. 

Sect.  III.  Thallus  crustaceus,  squamuloso-aut  in  ambitu  effiguratus. 

Hypothallus  glaber. 
Sub-sect  V.    Placodium,  Fr.     Apoth.  plano-scutellata,  disco  iin- 

marginato,  nudo. 

41.  straminea^  Wahl. 

42.  saxicola,  (Poll.)  Ach. 

43.  chrysoleuca,  (Sm.)  Ach. 

44.  orexna,  Ach. 

45.  elegans,  (Link.)  Ach. 

46.  murorum,  (Hoffm.)  Ach. «. 

/3   miniata,  Fr.  (Parmelia,  Ach.) 

1  In  honorem  amic.  inventoris,  Rev.  Job.  Lud.  Russell,  Lichenum  Nov.  Ang. 
illustratoris. 


51 

Sub-sect  VI.  Psora,  Fr.  Apoth.  ex  urceolato  scutellata,  disco 
marginato  normaliter  caesio-pruinoso. 

47.  cerytna,  (Pers.)Sommerf. 
a.  glaucocarpa,  Fr. 

/3.  squamulosa,  Fr. 

y.  discreta,  Fr. 
Sect.  \W.  Thallns  crustaceus,  uniformis. 

Sub-sect.  VII.  Patellaria,  Fr.  Apoth.  plano-scutellata,  disco  ira- 
marsfinato,  baud  caesio-pruinoso. 

48.  pallescens,  (L.)  PV.  a. 

li.  Parella,  Fr.  (Lecanora,  Ach.) 

49.  tartarea,  (L.)  Ach. 

50.  rubra,  (Hoffin.)  Ach. 

51.  ocuhita^  (Dicks.)  Fr. 

52.  subfiisca,  (L.)  Fr. 
a.  discolor,  Fr. 
/3.  distans,  Fr. 

y.  albella,  Fr. 
S.  angulosa,  Fr. 

53.  a<ra,  (Huds.)  Ach. 

54.  cinerea,  (L.)  Fr. 

55.  6arf{a,  (Ehrh.)Fr. 

56.  sophodeSf  Ach. 

57.  ventosa,  (L.)  Ach 

58.  varia,  (Ehrb.)  Fr.  «. 
/3.  polytropa,  Ach. 

59.  vitellina,  (Ehrh.)  Ach. 

60.  aurantiaca,  (Lightf.)  Fingerh. 

61.  cerina,  (Hedw.)  Ach. 

Sub-sect  VIII.  Urceolaria,  Fr.  Apoth.  immersa,  suburceolata 
aut  tuberculoso-protuberantia,  disco  submarginato,  ccesio-prui- 
noso, 

62.  sordida,  (Pers.)  Wallr. 

«.  glaucoma,  Fr.  (Lecanora,  Ach.) 

63.  impolita,  (Ehrh.)  Fr. 

64.  verrucosa,  Ach.  Fr. 
a.  Urceolaria,  Fr. 
^.  Pertusaria,  Fr. 

65.  calcarea,  (L.)  Ach. 

66.  scruposa,  (L  )  Ach.  «. 
/3.  bryophila,  Ach. 

XI.  DiRiNA,  Fries.  Apoth.  primo  tuberculiformia  clausa,  demum 
centro  dehiscentia  scutellata  a  tliallo  marginata.  Discus  strato 
carbonaceo  impositus.     Thallus  cruslaceus. 

XII.  Gyalecta,  Ach.  Fr.  Apoth.  urceolata,  primo  clausa,  dein 
varie  dehiscentia,  limbo  libero  colorato  cingentia  discum  e  ge- 
latinoso  rigescentem.     Thallus  cruslaceus. 

1.  cupiilaris,  (Hedw.)  Schaer.     (Lecidea,  Ach.) 
Trie.  II.     LECIDEACEiE,  Fr.     Discus  subrotundus,  persistens, 
excipulum  proprium  primitus  apertum  demum    subobtegens, 
cephaloideus. 


52 

XIII.  STEREOCAULoy,  Schreb.  Ach.  Apoth.  turbinata,  demum 
cephaloidea  sol i da,  ^ot/e/m  solidis  intus  JUatncntosis  suffulta. 

1.  tomeniosum,  Fr. 

2.  corallinum,  Schreb.  Laur. 

3.  ramulosum,  (Sw.)  Ach. 

4.  paschale,  (L.)  Ach. 

5.  condensatuvi,  Hoffm. 

6.  denudatum^  Floerk. 

7.  aciculare^  Tuckerm.  Ms.^ 

XIV.  Cladonia,  Hoffin.  Apoth.  scyphiiliformia,  mox  cephaloidea 
inflata,  nuda,  (ssepe  symphycarpeo-difformia,)  podeiiis  JistiUosis 
inanibus  suffuita.  Thallus  primitivus  squamiUosus  aul  crusta- 
ceus. 

Ser.  I.  G/awc  <E,  apoth.  rufis. 

1.  alcicornis,  (Lightf.)  Fr. 

2.  turgida,  (Ehrh.)  Hoffm.  (Cenom.  parecha,  Ach.) 
a  PapUlaria,  (Ehrh.)  Hoffm. 

Ser.  II.  FusciB,  apotli.  fuscis. 

4.  caespiticia,  (Pers.)  Fl. 

5.  pyridatUy  (L.)  Fr. 

6.  gracilis,  (L.)  Fr. 

a.  verticillata,  Fr.  (C.  verticillata,  Ach.) 

/J.  hybrida,  Fr. 

y.  elongata,  Fr.  (C.  gracilis,  Ach.) 

7.  degenerans,  Floerk.  «.  (C.  gonorega,  Ach.) 
/3.  cariosa,  (Fr.)  (C.  cariosa,  Ach.) 

8.  Jimbriata,  (L.)  Hoffm. 
«.  brevior,  (Fr.) 

fi.  tubseformis,  Fl, 
y.  radiata,  Fl. 

9.  decorticata,  Floerk. 

JO.  cenotea,  (Ach.)  Schaer.  (C  brachiata,  Fr.) 
Jl.  delicata,  (Ach.)  Fl. 

12.  squamosa,  Hoffm. 
a   ventricosa,  Fr. 

/3    attenuata,  Fr. 

13.  furcata,  (Schreb.)  Fl. 

a.  crispata,  Fl.  (C.  crispata,  Ach.)  | 

/3.  cristata,  Fr. 

y.  racemosa,  Fl.  (C.  racemosa,  Ach.) 

I.  subulata,  Fl.  (C.  furcata,  Ach.) 

s.  pungens,  Ach. 

14.  rangiferina,  (L.)  Hoffm.  ». 

1  Bseomyces,  Ach.  Meth.,  Cenomyce,  Ach.  Lich.,  Cladonia,  Floerk., &  Fries. 
Discovered  on  the  coast  of  Oregon  by  Menzies  !  1787,  and  since  Pound  on  the 
Rocky  Mountains  by  Douglas!  and  Scouler!  My  specimens  are  from  the  dis- 
coverer, and  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker.  We  have  a  very  nearly  allied  lichen  in  New 
England.  I  have  another  apparently  undescribed  species  from  Mr.  Lambert's 
herbarium,  which  was,  it  would  seem,  collected  by  Mr.  L.  Goulding,  but  the 
station  is  not  given:  —  S.  sphcerophoroides, Tuck.  Ms. :  podetiis  laxis  teretibus 
Bubsimplicibus,  squamulis  fibrillosis  pulcherrime  sphaerophoroideo-ramosis  j 
apoth.  sparsis  miuusculis. 


63 

/3.  sylvatica,  Fl. 
y.  alpestris,  Fl. 
Ser. III.  OchroleuciBy apoth. carneolis. 

15.  cameola,  Fr. 

16.  uncialis,  (L.)  Fr. 

X.  elatior,  Fr.  (C.  adunca,  Ach.) 
/3.  humilior,  Fr.  (C.  uncialis,  Ach.) 
y.  turgeacens,  Schser. 

i   reticulata,  Russell.  (C.  lacunosa,  Bory  Ms.) 
Ser.  IV.  Co  ccin  e(B  ,  apoth.  coccineis. 

17.  cornucopioides,  (L.)  Fr.  (C.  coccifera,  Ach.) 

18.  bellidijlora,  (Ach.)  Schser. 

19.  FloerkeanOj  Fr. 

20.  svlphurina,  (Michx.)  Fr. 

21.  deformis,  (L.)  Hoffm. 

22.  digitala,  (L.)  Hoffm. 

23.  macUenla,  (Ehrh.)  Hoffm. 

24.  leporina,  Fr.  Ms. 

XV.  B-EOMTcss,  Pers.  Apoth.  globosa,  immarginata,  inania,  velata, 
basi  stipitem  arete  amplectentia.  Thallus  mere  horizontalis 
crustaceus. 

1.  roseuSf  Pers. 

XVI.  Biator A,  Fries.  Apoth.  discoidea,  solida,  ceracea,  nuda,  mar- 
gine  proprio  ceraceo  (disco  pallidiori)  scepius  demum  excluso 
cephaloidea.  Thallus  mere  horizontalis  (Jbliaceus  /.)  subcrusta- 
ceus. 

Sect.  I.  Thallus  crustaceus,  effiguratus,  squamosus,  s.  in  ambitu  lo- 

batus. 
Ser.  I.   G I  auce  scent  eSi  hypothallo  albo, 
Ser.  II.  Fu scescentes,  hypothallo  nigro. 

1.  decipienSf  (Ehrh.)  Fr.  (Lecidea,  Ach.) 

2.  globifera,  (Ach.)  Fr.  (Lecidea,  Ach.) 

3.  atronifa,  (Dicks.)  Fr.  (Lecid.  demissa,  Ach.) 

4.  placophylla,  (Ach.)  Fr.  (Baeomyces,  Ach.) 

5.  bys3oides,  (L.)  Fr.  (Bseomyces  rufug,  Ach.) 
Sect.  II.  Thallus  crustaceus,  effusus,  uniformis, 
Ser.  I.  Glances  centes,  hypothallo  albo. 

6.  icmadophila,  (Ehrh.)  Fr.  (Lecid.  Ach.) 

7.  vernalis^  (L.)  Fr. 

«.  luteola,  Fr.  (Lecid.  Ach.) 

/3.  conglomerata,  Fr.  (Lecid.  vernalis,  Ach.) 

y.  pineti,  Fr.  (Lecid.  Ach.) 

8.  decolorans,  (Hoffm.)  Fr. 

Ser.  II.  Fuscescentes,  hypothallo  nigricante. 

9.  rivulosa,  (E.  Bot.)  Fr. 

10.  ulifrinosa,  Fr. 

Ser.  III.  O  c  hr  oleucce,  hypoth.  nigro,  rariss.  albo. 

11.  lucida,  (Ach.)  Fr. 

Ser.  IV.  at  rinfB^  hypoth.  nigro. 

12.  aurantiaca,  (Lightf.)  Fr. 

XVII.  Lecidea,  Ach.  Fries.  Apoth.  primitus  aperta,  patelieeformia 

5* 


54 

aut  hemisphsBrica,  excipulo  proprio  carhonaceo  aterrimo  margi- 
nata.     Discus   contiguus,  sequabilis,  raro  papillatus,  corneus 
(aut  ceraceus  margine  atro).     Thallus  crustaceus^  {hfoliaceus). 
Sect.  I.  Thallus  foliaceus. 

1.  sorediota,  Muhl. 

Sect.  II.  Thallus  crustaceus  effiguratus. 
Ser  I.  Gl  auces  centes. 

2.  Candida,  (Web.)  Ach. 

3.  vesicularis,  (HofFm.)  Ach. 
Ser.  IV.  CitrincB. 

4.  fVahleribergii,  Ach. 

Sect.  III.  Thallus  crustaceus  uniformis. 
Sub-sect.  I.  AreolatfB,  hypothallo  nigro. 
Ser.  I.  Glaucescenies. 

5.  alboccBnilescenSi  {WuK)Fr, 

6.  contigua,  Fr. 

7.  lapicida,  Ach. 

8.  parasemaj  Ach. 

9.  enteroleuca,  Ach.  Fr.  «. 

(i.  olivacea,  (L.  eleochroina,  Ach.) 
Ser.  II.  Fuscescentcs. 

10.  atronlba,  (L  )  Ach.  « 

(i.  subconcentrica,  Flot.  (Lecid.  petrcea.  Ach.) 

11.  panoeola,  Ach. 

12.  fuscoatra,  (L.)  Fr. 

13.  confluens,  (Web.)  Schser. 
Ser.  IV.  CitriiKB. 

14.  geogrnphica,  (L.)  Schser. 
a.  atrovirens,  Fr. 

/3.  contigua,  Fr. 
Sub-sect.  II.  Granulos  (By  hypothallo  albo. 
Ser.  I.  Glauc  e  s  c  ente  s» 

15.  sanguinaria^  (L.)  Ach. 
lt>.  alboatra,  (Hoffm.)  Schssr. 

«.  corticola,  Fr. 
/3.  saxicola,  Fr. 

17.  dolosa,  VVahl. 

Ser.  II.  Fus  e  es c  entes. 

18.  sabuletorum,  (Schreb.)  Fr. 

19.  mtlliaria,  Fr. 

Tril).  HI.  GRAPHlDACEiE,  Fr.  Discus  difformis,  ssepius  lirellce- 
forniis,  excipulo  normaliter  1.  proprio  1.  thallode  (aut  nullo). 

XVIII.  Umbilicaria,  Hoffm.  Apoth.  varia,  primitus  clausa,  mox 
aperta,  excipulo  carbonaceo.  Discus  rimosus  aut  seepius  in 
gyros  lirellasve  dehiscentes  abiens.  Thallus  horizontaliSjfron- 
dosus,  umbilicato-ajffixus,  sub-peltatus, 

1.  pustulata,  (L.)  Hoffm.  (Gyr.  papulosa,  Ach.) 

2.  polyphylla,  (L.)  H6ffm.  «.  (G.  glabra,  Ach.) 
/3.  deusta,  Fr. 

3.  hyperborea,  (Ach.)  Hoffm.  x. 
/J.  deusta,  Tuckerm. 


55 

4.  Pennsylvanicay  Hoffm. 

5.  Muhlenbergii,  (Ach.)  * 

6.  erosoy  (Web.)  HofFm. 

7.  proboscidea^  (L.)  Fr.  «. 
i3.  tornata,  Ach. 

y.  arctica,  Ach. 

8.  vetlea,  (L.)  Fr. 

9.  depressa,  SchaDr.  (U.  velle*,  var.  Fr.) 

10.  kirsutOf  (Ach.)  Stenh.  (U.  velleae,  var.  Fr.) 

XIX.  Opegrapha,  Humb.  Apoth.  lirellseformia,  excipulo  proprio 
subcarbonaceo  (atro)  Hbero,  primitus  conniventi-clauso,  rima 
longitudinal!  dein  aperta,  disco  canaliculato.  Thallus  crusta- 
ceus. 

1.  varia,  Pers. 

a.  pulicaris,  Fr.  (O.  vulvella,  &c.,  Ach.) 
iS.  notha,  Fr.  (O.  notha,  Ach.) 
y.  signata,  Fr.  (O.  signata,  Ach.) 
§.  diaphora,  Fr.  (O.  diaphora,  Ach.) 

2.  atia,  Pers. 

«.  stenocarpa,  Fr.  (O.  stenocarpa,  denigrata,  &  vulgata,  Ach.) 
P>.  abbreviata,  Fl.  (O.  depressa,  pedonta,  &c.,  Ach.) 
y.  macularis,  Fr.  (O.  radiata,  Pers.,  Arthonia  astroidea,  Ach.) 
S.  siderella,  Fr.  (O.  siderella,  &c.,  Ach.) 

3.  herpetica,  Ach. 

4.  scripta,  (L.)  Ach. 

«.  pulverulenta,  (Fr.)  (O.  pulverulenta,  Ach.) 
/3.  recta,  Fr.  (O.  cerasi,  betiiligna,  &c.,  Pers.) 
y.  serpentina,  Fr.  (Opegrapha,  Ach.) 

XX.  Lecanactis,  Eschw.  Apoth.  difformia,  elongatave,  excipulo 
proprio  carbonaceo  (atro)  semper  aperto  cum  thallo  connato; 
disco  plnniusculo  pruinosovelato.     Thallus  crustaceus. 

*  CoNiANGiUM,  Fr.     Apoth.  adpressa,  difformia,  suboblonga,  immar- 

ginata,  lamina  persistente  sporos  coloratos  obtegente.    Thallus 
crustaceus.    Genus  atypicum. 

*  CoNiocARPoiv,  Dec.  Schffir.     Apoth.  adpressa,  difformia,  lirellsB- 

formiave, lamina  rumpente  in  soros  spororum  coloratorum  fatis- 
centia.     Genus  forsan  spurium. 
Trib.  IV.  CALlCIi\€EiK,  Fr.    Discus  globosus  aut  orbicularis,  in 
gporidia  nuda  collabens,  excipulo  proprio. 

XXI.  CoNiocYBE,  Ach.  Apoth.  spheerica,  stipitata,  immarginata, 
e  vertice  fatiscentia,  excipulo  suberoso. 

XXII.  Calicium,  Pers.  Ach.  Apoth.  crateriformia,  excipulo  pro- 
prio carbonaceo  marginata,  disco  in'sporidia  nuda  collapso. 

1.  lenticiUare-,  (Hoffm.)  Ach. 

2.  subtile,  Pers.  Fr. 

3.  trachelinum,  Ach. 

4.  melanophfBum,  Ach.  Fr. 

5.  ph(Bocephalum,  Turn.  &  Borr. 
/5.  trabinellum,  Fr. 

6.  roscidum,  Floerk. 

7.  tigillarej  (Ach.)  Turn.  &  Borr. 


56 

8.  sfigoncUumj  Ach.  (C.  sessile,  Pers.) 

9.  turbinatum^  Pers. 

*  Trachylia,  Fr.  Apoth.  sessilia,  convexa,  immarginata,  excipulo 
carbonaceo,  disco  pulveraceo.     Genus  dubium. 

ORD.  11.    ANGIOCARPI,  Schrad. 
Char.  Apothecia  clausa,  nuclei/era. 

Trib.  I.  SPHiEROPHORACEiE^r.  Excipulum  mere  thallodes 
clausum,  lacero-dehiscens.     Tliallus  verticalis. 

XXIII.  SpHiEROPHORON,  Pers.  Apoth.  terminalia,sph8erica,lacero- 
dehiscentia,  nucleo  pulveraceo  atro. 

1.  compressuniy  Ach. 

2.  globiferum,  (L.)  Dec. 

3.  fragile,  (L.)  Pers. 

XXIV.  SiPHULA,  Fr.  Apoth.  in  apicibus  thalli  tumescentibus  et 
lacero-dehiscentibus,  nucleo  ceraceo-gelatinoso  disparente  coio- 
rato. 

Trib.  II.  ENDOCARPACEiE,  Fr.  Excipulum  mere  thallodes,  aut 
thallodes  mutatum  simul,  clausum,  ostiolo  pertusum.  Tliallus 
horizontalis,  primo  genere  excepio  crustaceus. 

XXV.  Endocarpon,  Hedw.  Apoth.  thallo  inclusa,  excipulo  mem- 
branaceo  pallido  (thallode  mutato)  cingente  nucieum  gelatino- 
sum  coloratum.     Tliallus  foliactus. 

1.  mimatum,  (L.)  Ach.  «. 
)3.  complicatum,  Schasr. 

2.  Jluviatile,  (Web.)  Dec.  (E.  Weberi,  Ach.) 

3.  pusillum,  Hedw.  (E.  Hedwigii,  Ach.) 

XXVI.  Sagedia,  Ach.  Fries.  Apoth.  thallo  iramersa,  excipulo 
membranaceo  cum  nucleo  gelatinoso  nigricante. 

XXVII.  Chiodecton,  Ach.  Apoth.  verrucceformia,  e  strato  thalli 
meduUari  erumpente  formata,  nucleos  ceraceo-gelatinosos  ni- 
gricantes  includentia. 

XXVIII.  Pertusaria,  Dec.  Apoth.  verrucseformia,  e  thallo  for- 
mata, includentia  nucleos  (I  —  00)  nudos  ceraceo-gelatinosos 
coloratos. 

1.  perlusa,  (L)  *  (P.  communis,  Dec,  Fr.) 

b.  leioplaca,  Fr.  (Porina,  Ach.) 
/3.  sorediatay  Fr. 

b.  orbiculata,  Fr.  (Variolaria  faginea,  Auct.,  V.  communis, 
Ach.) 

2.  ff'ulfenih  Dec  «. 

/3.  variolosa,  Fr.  (VariolarisB,  Auct.) 

XXIX.  Thelotrema,  Ach.  Apoth.  verrucseformia,  e  thallo  for- 
mata, dein  aperta,  includentia  nucieum  collapso-disciformera 
velatum. 

1.  lepadinum,  Ach. 

2.  cinereum,  Schwein.  (Pyrenula,  et  Verrucaria  demum  Spreng.) 
Trib.  III.  VERRUCARIACEiE,  Fr.     Excipulum  proprium  clau- 
sum (perithecium)  ostiolo  contiguo  pertusum,  nucleo  deliques- 
cente  subhyalino.     Thallus  criislar.eus. 

XXX.  Segestria,  Fr.  Stroma  thallodes  nullum.  Perithecia  de- 
nudata,  ceraceo-membranacea  (colorata)  ostiolo  simplici. 


57 

XXXI.  Verrucaria,  Pers.  Stroma  thallodes  nullum.  Perithecia 
solitaria  prominula,  carbonacea  (aterrima),  ostiolo  simplici. 

1.  rupestns,  Schrad. 

2.  umbrina^  Ach.  Wahl. 

3.  pulla,  Ach. 

4.  nitida,  (Weig.)  Schrad. 

5.  alba,  Schrad. 

6.  gemmata,  Ach. 

7.  eptdermidis,  Ach.  Fr. 
».  analepta,  (Fr.) 

/3.  cerasi,  (Fr.) 
y.  diminuta,  (Fr.) 

8.  punctiformis,  Pers.    (V.  cinerea,  Pers.,  stigmatella,  Ach.) 
Trib.  IV.  LIMBORIACEiE,  Fr.     Excipulum  proprium  carbonace- 

um  clausum  (perithecium)  dein  varie  et  irregulariter  dehiscens. 
Thallus  crustaceus, 

XXXII.  Pyrenothea,  Fr.  Perithecia  carbonacea,  clausa,  ostiolo 
pertusa,  nucleum  subgelatinoso-fatiscentera  protrudentia,  dein 
dehiscentia. 

1.  leucocephala,  (Ehrh.)  Fr.     (Lecidea  abietina,  Ach.) 

XXXIII.  Cliostomum,  Fr.  Perithecia  carbonacea,  clausa  collapsa 
rugoso-plicata,  rugis  demum  dehiscentibus. 

XXXIV.  LiMBORiA,  Eschw.  Perithecia  carbonacea,  clausa,  de- 
mum  e  centro  versus  ambitum  in  lacinias  stellatim  dehiscentia. 

XXXV.  Strigula,  Fr.  Perithecia  carbonacea,  clausa,  disco  col- 
labentia.     Suhepiphylla* 


With  the  genus  Strigula,  so  exactly  on  the  confines  of  Lichenes 
and  Fungi,  that  it  is  included  in  the  system  of  each  class,  we  reach 
the  most  imperfect  lichenose  vegetation  to  which  we  can  descend. 
There  remains  one  other  of  the  three  orders  of  AlgsB  to  be  illus- 
trated here,  —  the  ByssacesB,  which  are  the  intermediate  and  am- 
phibial  tribes  between  aerial  Algffi  or  Lichenes,  and  aquatic  Algce, 
or  Phyceas.  Their  position  in  the  System  has  already  been  indi- 
cated, in  the  first  part  of  this  treatise.  Before  taking  them  up, 
however,  I  wish  to  present  Fries's  disposition  of  the  genera  of  Li- 
chenes, according,  simply,  to  affinity  and  analogy,  as  thus  arranged 
by  him  in  parallel  series. 


58 


Thalamium. 


A.  Discoideum, 
recepturn  ab  excipulo 


a.  propria. 
*  Stereocaulon. 
Cladonia. 


**Baeoinyce8  ? 
Umbilicaria. 
Biatora. 
Lecidea. 

Lecanactis. 

***Opegrapha 
****CalicieaB. 


b.  thallode. 
*  Usnea. 

Evernia. 

Ramalina. 

Roccella. 

Cetraria. 
**Peltigera. 

Sticta. 

Parmelia,  A. — 

Parmelia,  T.  VI. 
VIII. 

Dirina. 

Gyalecta. 

(Leucogramma 

etc.  exotic.) 


B.  Nucleiforme, 
recepturn  ab  excipulo 


a.  propno. 
*  Sphaerophoron. 
Siphula. 


Endocarpon. 

Pertusana. 

Sagedia. 

Chiodecton. 
Theiotrema. 
(Exot.) 


b.  thallode. 


**(Exotica.) 

Segestria. 
Verrucaria. 

Pyrenothea, 
Limboria. 
***(Oxystonia.) 
****Striguia. 


Ord.  BYSSACEiE,  Fr. 

Char.  Thallus  liber,  discretus,  hygrophanus,  floccosus  1.  in  fron- 
dem  gelatinosam  absque  omnibus  stratis  discretis  conglutinatus. 
Sporffi  receptJB  ascis  thalamic  vulgo  immersis,  interdum  liberis. 
Alg(B  amphibicB^  perennes  per  intervalla  in  vegetation  e  retardat(Ey 
heterogenecB,  nulla  vero  strata  discernentes,  sporidiis  gonidiisque 
mulliplical<B. 

Trib.  I.  COLLEMACEiE,  Fr.  Thallus  gelatinoso-conglutinatus, 
caulescens  aut  foliaceus.     Apoth.  endogenea. 

I.  LiCHiNA,  Ag.    Apoth.clausa  terminalia, libera,  poropertusa,  tan- 

dem explanata  ;  thallus  cartilagineuSf  dichotomus.     (In  scopulis 
marinis.) 

II.  NosTOC,  Vauch.     Apoth.  clausa  minutlssima,  thallo  immersa, 

nucleum  eructuantia ;  thallus   gtlatinosus^  Jilis  moniliformihus 
curvalis  farclus.    (Nostocia  plura  terrestria  ad  Colleniata  per- 
tinent. Fr.) 
1.  commune,  Vauch. 
in.  CoLLEMA,  HofFm.     Apoth.  discoideo-aperta,  excipulo  thallode ; 
thallus  pulposus,  conlewtu  moniliformi-Jiiamentoso. 

1.  pulposum,  (Bernh.)  Ach. 

2.  tenax,['Svf.)  Ach.  «. 
/3.  pallescens,  Ach. 

3.  melfBHum,  Ach. 

4.  fasciculare,  (L.)  Ach. 

5.  pu^tulatum,  Ach. 

6.  paimatum,{lli\(is.)  Ach. 

7.  saturninum,  (Dicks.)  Ach. 

8.  nigrescenSf{Huda.)  Ach. 

9.  pulchellum,  Ach. 

10.  tunceforme,  Ach. 

11.  Jurvum,  Ach. 


IV.  Leptogium,  Fr.     Apoth.  discoideo-aperta,  excipulo  proprio ; 
ihallus  memhranaceus,  coniextu  celluloso. 

1.  Tremelloides,  {h.)  Fr. 

2.  lacerum,  (Sw.)  Fr. 

Trib.  II.  BYSSE^,  Fr.     Thallus  filamentosus  aut  floccosus,  baud 
gelatinosus.     Apoth.  subexogenea. 

V.  Thermutis,  Fr.  Asci  thalamio  immersi,  excipulo  proprio  e  plu- 

ribus  fibris  hypothalli  copulatis  enato. 

VI.  Ephebe,  Fr.   Asci  thalamio  immersi,  excipulo  thallode  e  singula 
fibra  enato. 

1.  pubescens,  (L.)  Fr.  (Cornicularia,  Ach.) 

VII.  Racodium,  Pers.     Asci  e  fibris  ipsis  mutatis,  contiguis,  medio 
fertilibus.    (Sola  autonoma  generis  stirps.  Fr.) 

1.  rupestre,  Pers. 

VIII.  Byssus,  L.,  Fries.     Asci  e  fibris  ipsis  mutatis,  apice  subin- 
crassatis,  articulatis. 

1.  aurea,h.     (Dematium  petraeum,  Pers.) 

2.  abielina,  (Pers.)  Fr.     (Dematium,  Pers.) 


Byssace(B  Spuria. 

We  bring  these  in  only  as  an  appendix  to  the  System,  which  ex- 
cludes them  as  spurious.  They  arise  either,  I.  in  the  dissolution 
of  the  bodies  of  other  plants,  as  LepraricB  among  the  Lichenes, 
Mycinemata  among  the  Fungi,  and  other  like  forms  among  the 
aquatic  Algse  ;  or,  II.  from  degenerated  organs  of  the  vegetative 
system,  as  Phylleriaceas  in  Fungi,  &c. ;  or.  III.  they  are  the  priraor- 
dia,  —  the  first  beginnings  of  other  plants,  the  further  evolution  of 
which  has  been  concluded.  Such  is  Proionema,  gfeen,  rooting, 
persistent  threads,  which  occur  in  the  Filices,  the  Musci,  &c. : 
Byssocladium,  similar  threads  without  color,  belonging  to  the  Fungi : 
Protococcus,  the  primordial  subgelatinous  globular  gonidia  of  Al- 
gffi,  which  passes  into  Ulvacese,  Palmella  botryoides,  and  even 
Lichenes :  and  Phycomater^  in  Fungi,  an  almost  inorganic  mucilage 
without  gonidia. 


FINIS. 


ERRATA. 

Page    3,  line  36,  for  of  read  or. 

"    47,    "      3,    "     brd.  "  Div. 

"    47,    "    12,    "    aZ>rZ>a<a  "  Z>ar*a/a. 


THIS   BOOK   IS   DUE  ON   THE   LAST  DATE 
STAMPED   BELOW 


RENEWED  BOOKS  ARE  SUBJECT  TO  IMMEDIATE 
RECALL 


REf.  MAY  1  0  1965 

JAN  2  6  1966 
RET.  FEB  I  5  19B 


LIBRARY,  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNI.' 

Book  SIil>-35»B-7,'62(D. 


PAMPHLET  BINOI 

Syracuse,  N, 

m:  Stock*' 


Tuckerman,  E. 

Eniaineration  of  North 
American   T.ichenes* 


Call  Number: 


QK587 
T88 


261180 


rr^Ji 


3* 


